Everything’s An Argument

Chapter 1: Everything Is an Argument

Everything is an Argument

• Our text is based on the following presumption:
• an argument can be any text (whether written, spoken, or visual) that expresses a point of view. (p. 4)

Arguments to…

• Inform
• Convince
• Explore
• Make Decisions
• Meditate/Pray

Arguments to INFORM

• Presenting specific information to inform readers
• Focus is on the information

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Arguments to INFORM

Obama

for President

2008

Arguments to INFORM

Arguments to INFORM

Arguments to CONVINCE

• Focuses on readers –
• trying to satisfy or convince them that you have thoroughly examined and presented information that merits attention.
• Example:
• Writing a research essay on the causes of soil erosion in southeast Alabama

Arguments to EXPLORE

• Usually show that there is merit in looking into a subject – that there is an argument to be made.
• “Opponent” can be the status quo or current trend.
• Problem does exist – writer or reader needs to solve it.

Arguments to EXPLORE

• “This is an exploratory column, its purpose to encourage thought on a question that badly needs thinking about.

The Problem: The birth every year of one million babies to unwed mothers.

The Consequence: One million children who, on reaching the age of 13, tend to run into difficulties. The statistics tell us that a child raised by a single parent is likelier by a factor of 600 percent to commit crimes, consume drugs, quit school, and bear, or sire, children out of wedlock. Assume – if only to be hopeful – that the problems diminish after age 19; we are still left with six million teenagers who are a heavy social burden, as also, of course, a burden to themselves.”

William F. Buckley

“Should There Be a Law?

Arguments to EXPLORE

• Problem does exist – writer or reader needs to solve it.
• Example:
• “We have a problem with litter on campus.”

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Arguments to MAKE DECISIONS

• Closely allied with exploratory arguments
• Argue for a particular decision
• Example:
• From the essay addressing soil erosion in Southeast Alabama, you might write a proposal which focuses on a possible solution to the problem.

Arguments to MEDITATE/PRAY

• Arguments can take form of meditation on a theme or of prayer.
• Pausing to consider or to gain peace of mind.
• Purpose:
• Writer is hoping to transform something within to reach a peace of mind.

God is the fountain whence� ten thousand blessings � flow;�To Him my life, my health, � my friends�And every good, I owe.

Occasion for Argument

• Past
• Future
• Present

Arguments about Past

• Forensic arguments: debates about what has happened in the past.
• Present evidence from past to justify conclusions.
• Rely heavily on precedents – actions or decisions in past that influence policies or decisions in the present.
• Example:
• “Years of clear-cutting timber without replanting has led to the current problem of soil erosion in SE Alabama.”

Arguments about Future

• Deliberative argument
• Often rely on forensic arguments because what happened in the past usually decides what will happen in the future.
• Make some kind of decision (proposals)
• try to establish policies or project future outcomes

Arguments about Present

• Epideictic or Ceremonial Arguments
• Its aim: to condemn or to eulogize an individual, cause, occasion, movement, city, or state.
• Often about contemporary values

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• Ethical premises/assumptions widely held within a society

Status of Arguments

• Arguments of Fact
• Arguments of Definition
• Arguments of Evaluation
• Proposal Arguments

• Did something happen?
• What is its nature?

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• What is its quality?

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• What action should be taken?

Arguments of Fact

• Facts can be proved or disproved with evidence or testimony.
• Concern: if something can easily be proven, it can’t be argued.
• A Hyundai is significantly lower in price than Toyota.

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• Global warming is rapidly destroying the rain forests of South America.

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Arguments of Definition

• Often involves categorizing or defining terms.
• “Is a human embryo a human being?”
• “Is abortion murder?”

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• Bob Costas example (pg. 24) :
• Mickey Mantle eulogy
• ROLE MODEL
• HERO

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Arguments of Evaluation

• Common type of argument
• Argument of quality
• Makes some kind of judgment about topic
• Tahoe vs. Expedition: which is the better SUV for the price?
• Parks’ evaluation of Martin Luther King Jr. (pg. 26)

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Proposal Arguments

• Present evidence to show there is a problem; then, propose a solution.
• Recommend most viable course of action.

Stasis Questions

• Argument of Fact

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• Argument of Definition

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• Argument of Evaluation

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• Proposal Argument

• Does global warming exist?
• What is global warming?
• Should global warming be a concern to us today?
• What action should be taken to stop global warming?

Audiences for Arguments

• Making a Connection to Reader
• Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum.
• Writers’ works are influenced by who they are.
• Race
• Religion
• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Class
• Intelligence

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Making a Connection to Reader

• Readers’ perceptions of writer influence their reception of what has been written.
• Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices.
• Establish some connection with readers.
• Familiarity
• Presenting yourself as authority

Making a Connection to Reader

“Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed

and planted, and gathered into barns, and no

man could head me. And ain’t I a woman?... I

have borne thirteen children, and seen most all

sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my

mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me. And

ain’t I a woman?”

Sojourner Truth

“Ain’t I a Woman?”

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Appealing to Audiences

• Aristotle identified 3 key ways writers can appeal to their audiences in arguments.
• Pathos
• Emotional appeals or appeals to the heart
• Ethos
• Ethical appeals or appeals based on the writer’s authority and credibility
• Logos
• Logical appeals or appeals to reason

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Emotional Appeals

• Designed to appeal to the readers’ emotions and feelings.
• Can cause readers to think more carefully about subject.
• Persuading reader not to drink and drive
• telling a story of a teen or young mother killed by drunk driver

Ethical Appeals

• As writer, must seem honest, sincere, and trustworthy.
• Look for evidence of character in arguments
• Who is the author?
• Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic?
• Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer’s agenda?
• Does writer acknowledge and address opposition?
• Are sources documented?

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REMEMBER: these same questions will be used to analyze your writings.

Ethical Appeals

• As author, you must consider
• Language
• Organization & structure
• Sense of authority

Logical Appeals

• Writer must provide enough evidence to support argument.
• Test all assumptions and claims.
• Question every source and authority cited.
• data and information from reliable sources

Making a Claim

• Claim: statement of belief or truth
• Can be plainly stated (more traditional arguments).
• Can be inferred (in stories, anecdotes, etc.).
• Claims must be attached to reasons that support it and premises that uphold it to be an argument.
• Can have several claims in one essay.
• Look at relationship among them

Shaping an Argument

• Arguments must have logical structure, even if appeal uses emotion, values, or character.
• Aristotle asserted arguments had only 2 parts:
• Statement (claim)
• Proof (evidence)

Giving an Argument Style

• Have to think of the way the evidence is presented.
• Even logical, well-planned argument can be boring.
• Have to tailor your style to the topic
• What is most appropriate
• Style can tell readers what to expect

READERS & CONTEXT

• Must always think about audience or readers when you present arguments.
• Must always address an intended audience.

READERS & CONTEXT

• Different kinds of readers
• Ideal reader (exists in author’s mind)
• Invoked reader (represented in the text)
• Real reader (ones who actually read text)

READERS & CONTEXT

• If potential readers do not feel connected to text in some way, then…
• They will (probably) not be affected by your argument or
• They will not even continue to read.

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Establish Credibility

• Ways to establish credibility:
• Demonstrate you are knowledgeable
• Highlight shared values
• Refer to common experiences
• Use language to build common ground
• Respect reader
• Almost impossible to guarantee credibility because readers are varied.

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Establishing Credibility

• Demonstrate Knowledge
• Show readers you know what you are talking about
• Facts/statistics

Establishing Credibility

• Highlight Shared Values
• Find common values with the potential readers
• What community do you share?
• Refer to Common Experiences
• Build Common Ground
• Closely related to common experiences
• Establish a connection with readers
• Use pronouns

Establishing Credibility

• Respect Readers
• Do not speak down to readers
• Do not use offensive language

Rhetorical Situation

• Argument exists in a particular context of some kind that influences how it can be shaped and how others receive it.

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CONTEXT

Context

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Topic/Subject

(Logical Appeals)

Audience/Readers

(Emotional Appeals)

Author

(Ethical Appeals)

Rhetorical Situation

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Context

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Topic/Subject

(Logical Appeals)

LOGOS

Audience/Readers

(Emotional Appeals)

PATHOS

Author

(Ethical Appeals)

ETHOS