CHAPTER 3�ETHICAL THEORIES�

MEANING OF ETHICAL THEORY 

Ethical theory organizes moral judgments and provides moral principles. In order to determine whether a particular action, conduct, behavior or judgment is right or wrong, we need to test it on basis of some ethical principles. These principles are provided by ethical theories. Ethical theories are normative theories that upheld some rule or norm.

WHY WE NEED ETHICAL THEORY? 

Ethical theories are needed for following reasons:-

(i) General rules do not prove to be sufficient to judge right or wrong in all situations.

(ii) People possess conflicting intuitions about general rules relating to morality.

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(iii) New situations and practices are not properly addressed by age-old moral rules.

(iv) Ethical theory provides logical answer as to why a particular action is right or wrong.

5. Ethical theory provides justification and defends basis moral principle.

CLASSIFICATION OF ETHICAL THEORIES OR NORMATIVE

Ethics is a normative study, that is, an investigation that attempts to reach normative conclusions. It aims to arrive at conclusions about what things are good or bad, or what actions are right or wrong

Ethical Theories / Normative theories are of two types:-

(1) Consequentialist Theories or Teleological Theories

(2) Non- Consequentialist Theories or Deontological Theories

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Normative Theories

Utilitarianism

Non-Consequentialist or Deontological Theories

Kantian Theory

Consequentialist or Teleological Theories

Egoism

Virtue Ethics Theory

Theory of Personal Liberty and Right

Divine command Theory

Theory of Justice

1. CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES / TELEOLOGICAL THEORIES

• The theory which is based on moral judgments or consequences is called “consequentialist theory” (or) “Teleological moral theory”.
• Derived from a Greek word ‘Telos’ which means goal or end or purpose.
• Consequentialist theories are those which are based on consequences and these include;

I. Egoism Theory

II. Utilitarianism Theory

III. Simmel's Value Relativism Theory

IV. Jellinek's Theory

V. Theory of Perfectionism

I. Egoism Theory

• It states that an action is good if it produces results to maximize a person's self-interest.
• The theory was propounded by Adam Smith and Milton Friedman.
• According to William Shaw egoism contends that an act is morally right if and only if it best promotes an agent's long-term interest.
• Here an agent can be a single person or a particular group or organization.

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• Decisions based on egoism mainly are intended to provide positive consequences to a given party’s interest without hurting the interest of others.
• When an organization performs or safeguard its interest without hurting the interest of others, then we can say that the organization acts ethically.
• This makes the ethical egoism different from the psychological egoism which holds that people are self-centered and self-motivated and perform actions only with the intention to maximize their personal interest without helping others, thereby denying the reality of true altruism (sacrificing one’s personal interest in the welfare of others).

Criticism

• Egoism directly and indirectly supports selfishness and selfishness cannot be regarded as a virtue in our life.
• Psychological egoism, which states that everyone is motivated by self-interest is not a sound theory.
• Egoism as an ethical theory is not really a moral theory at all.
• Ethical Egoism ignores blatant wrong doings

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II. Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism as an ethical system which is propounded by Jereme Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
• Utilitarianism is based on the concept of utility.
• The two utilitarian theories are:

1. Bentham’s Theory of Utility

2. Mill’s Utilitarian Theory

1. Bentham’s Theory of Utility

• According to Bentham, principle of utility as explained in terms of ‘pleasure’ and ‘pain’ is the motivation behind every human action.
• Bentham’s concern was not individual welfare but the welfare of the whole society.
• Utility means an action that produces greatest happiness to greatest number of people.
• Based on greatest happiness principle
• Pleasure - Pain = utility of an action
• consequences determines what actions will provide the most amount of happiness (utility) for the most amount of people

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Contribution of Bentham’s Theory

• Source to identify functions of the state
• Means to legal and constitutional reforms

Criticism

• Utility is a vague concept
• Recognizes quantitative difference
• Felicific Calculus is absurd
• Ignores moral problems
• Individual interest and social good not reconciled

2. Mill’s Utilitarian Theory

• J.S. Mill was a disciple of Bentham and accepted his utilitarian theory.
• However, he made certain modifications to suit it to the changing time.
• Mill made following modifications to Bentham’s utilitarian theory:

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• Recognized only qualitative difference of pleasures
• Pleasures cannot be measures
• Principle of moral obligation
• Self-realization is final end of life
• Liberty is an end in itself
• Tradition and history are important

Criticism

The theory of utilitarianism propagated by J.S. Mill is criticized for his breach of utilitarian views. His argument of qualitative difference in pleasures is considered close to attain perfectionism.

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Versions of Utilitarian Theory

1. Act utilitarianism - under which an action is right if and only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for everyone. For example, telling a lie or breaking a promise is right if its consequences are better than those of any alternative course of action. Thus, classical utilitarianism does not require observing rules such as “Tell the Truth.”

2. Rule Utilitarianism - under which an action is right if and only if it confirms to generally accepted rules and produces the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.

III. Simmel's Value Relativism Theory

• The theory emphasizes that social sciences are normative and teleological.
• According to him it is not the individual who has to make judgment on rightness of an action. Only a moral authority can decide the rationality of ethical norms.
• The ethical sciences in his opinion cannot lay down absolute rules to decide the standards of morality.

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IV. Jellinek’s Theory

• The core of Jellinek's theory is that there is a distinction between 'theoretical political science' and 'applied political science'.
• As an applied science, political science aim at attaining certain social ends.
• The social ends involve value judgments for which no scientific evidence can be provided.
• Therefore, no scientific method can be prescribed to ascertain rightness of an act. 

V. Theory of Perfectionism

• This theory has its roots in Greek thinkers who termed it as 'Eudaimonism'. To Greek thinkers 'Eudaimonism' was synonym to virtue.
• Virtue symbolized an act that gives a feeling of joy. Therefore, an act that brings joy was considered right.
• As there is no unanimity about views on standards of moral reasoning, the theory emphasizes that moral perfection can be achieved by own efforts. Perfection in this context means a selfless act, which not only enhances one's happiness and does not diminish or reduce happiness of others.

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2. NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES / DEONTOLOGICAL THEORIES

• These theories hold that actions can be right or wrong regardless of their consequences are called “Non- consequentialist” or “deontological theory”.
• Derived from a Greek word ‘Deon’ which means duty.
• Consequentialist theories are those which are based on consequences and these include;
• Kant's Morality Theory
• Divine Command Theory
• Virtue Ethics Theory
• Theory of Justice
• Theory of Personal Liberty and Right

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I. Kant’s Morality Theory

• This theory was propounded by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) with a non-consequentialist approach to ethics.
• He said that the moral worth of an action is determined on the basis of its intrinsic features or character, not results or consequences.
• He believed in good will, that good actions proceed from right intentions, those inspired by a sense of duty.
• Kant prescribes a moral system based on rules and rights. These rules and rights have their roots in humanitarian maxims and morals laid down by Chinese Scholar Confucius.
• Two formulations of moral principle provided by kant:

1. First Formulation: The first formulation follow the principles that we must do with others what we wish others to do with us. If one does not want what he wants to do with others, such an action is immoral. For example, if one wants to cheat others, he must reason whether he is willing to be cheated. If the answer is no, such an action is immoral.

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2. Second Formulation: According to this theory one must not use others to accomplish or advance his self-interest. Such an act is immoral. For example exposing an employee to a hazardous job is immoral. Secondly every person must have a dignity for being treated in a humane manner and not as tools or machinery.

Criticism

• All Actions are not moral actions
• Kant's categorical imperative is hardly correct to test of right
• Kant's ambiguous concept of treating People as means

II. Divine Command Theory

• This is also termed as religion theory.
• This theory views that universal principles of morality emerge from religion only.
• According to this theory the basis of right and wrong is the will of God. Accordingly, right means commanded and wrong means forbidden by God.

• As to the question that how one knows what god condemns or forbids, the theory answers that "God only revels what is right and does not make it right or creates its rightness merely by willing it".
• This theory considers that faith, rather than reason, intuition or knowledge as the basics of moral life.
• Thus, good actions are those that God commands.

III. Virtue Ethics Theory

• Plato and Aristotle propounded this theory.
• The word Virtue is derived from the Greek word ‘Arete’ which means to be the best at something one can be.
• They emphasize that character traits like honesty, fairness, compassion and generosity etc., must be encouraged to develop good ethical value system in society.
• According to this theory, a right act is the action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances.
• Virtue ethics is person based rather than action based.
• It looks at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of particular actions.

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IV. Theory of Justice

• John Rawls propounded ‘Theory of Justice’.
• Professor Rawls proposes that society is an association of individuals, who co-operate to advance the good of all. Therefore, the society and the institutions within that society are marked by conflict as well as by collaboration.
• The collaboration comes about, since individuals recognize, that joint actions generate much greater benefits than solitary efforts; the conflict is inherent because people are concerned by the just distribution of those benefits.
• Each person prefers a greater to a lesser share and proposes a system of distribution to ensure that greater share.
• Justice will be possible only when individuals take decisions behind the veil of ignorance with regard to their own characteristics (intelligence, strength, etc).
• Rawls argues that individuals in their original position (unaware of characteristics) would agree to two rules, they are:

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1. Liberty – Each person should have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others.

2. Opportunity – Social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are both:

a. Reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and

b. Attached to positions and offices open to all.

• Theory of justice suggests, framing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially by following a suitable base of distribution consistent with legal rules and regulations.

IV. Theory of Personal Liberty and Right

• The theory of Personal Liberty is proposed by Robert Nozick and Right Theory is proposed by John Locke.
• This system is based upon the primacy of a single value, ‘liberty’. Liberty is thought to be the first requirement of society. An institution or law that violates individual liberty in making choices, even though it may result in greater happiness and increased benefits for others, has to be rejected as being unethical.

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• Rights theory is concerned with respecting and protecting individual liberties and privileges such as the right to privacy, freedom of conscience, free speech, life and safety and due process. This would include, for example, protecting the free speech rights of employees who report legal violations by their employers and refusal of overtime when needed.
• Rights are positive and negative.
• Rights are legal and moral.
• The Rights based theory by John Locke states, that human beings have duties because they have rights. Liberty is related closely with life in a community of people. Negative rights, on the other hand, place duties on other people not to interfere with one’s life. One may also talk of having rights to certain goods and services, health care, a clean environment or education.

Comparison of Teleological and Deontological Moral Reasoning Theories

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