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FINISHING AND POLISHING AGENTS

Presented by Dr Manjima Khandelwal Preceptor: Dr Abhishek Nagpal

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CONTENTS

  • INTRODUCTION
  • HISTORY
  • OBJECTIVES OF FINISHING AND POLISHING
  • RATIONALE
  • TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED
  • FACTORS AFFECTING FINISHING AND POLISHING
  • PRINCIPLES
  • STEPS IN FINISHING AND POLISHING
  • SPEEDS
  • ABRASION
    • TYPES OF ABRASION
    • FACTORS AFFECTING ABRASION
  • CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHING AND POLISHING AGENTS

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  • POLISHING OF RESTORATIONS
    • ACRYLIC RESINS
    • ALLOYS
    • CERAMICS
    • STAINLESS STEEL CROWNS
  • PRECAUTIONS
  • RECENT ADVANCES
  • REVIEW OF LITERATURE
  • CONCLUSION
  • REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION

Well finished restorations offer-

  • High esthetic results
  • Longevity of restorations
  • Maximal oral health for patient

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HISTORY

THE PREHISTORIC ERA-

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  • Over 10000 years ago- hunting and gathering instruments were sharpened by chipping and abrading one surface against another

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THE MIDDLE AGES-

Stones, spears, shields and daggers were produced by abrading against a cylindrical stone with abrasive surface

AGE OLD GRINDING STONE

(Introduced about 4000 years ago)

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  • THE 13TH CENTURY-

The Chinese introduced the first coated abrasives by

embedding seashell fragments in natural gums that were spread on a parchment

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  • EARLY 1900s-

Abrasive technology advanced further through development and use of alumina grains, diamond particles and silicon carbide grit

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  1. Removing marginal irregularities
  2. Defining anatomic contours
  3. Smoothening surface roughness
  4. Achieving well adapted cavosurface margins
  5. Elimination of minute scratches
  6. Establishing smooth light reflecting enamel surface

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  • Rough surfaces are more likely to-

Retain plaque

Cause surface breakdown and corrosion

Fracture

Cause wear of adjacent tooth or restoration

Produce stress conc. points

Compromise esthetics

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RATIONALE

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ABRASION

  • Process of wearing away of a surface by friction

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ABRASIVE

  • Outermost particle or surface material of an instrument that produces abrasion

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SUBSTRATE

  • Material/surface being finished

CUTTING

  • Process of removing material from the substrate by use of a bladed bur or an abrasive embedded in a binding matrix on a bur or disk.

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TERMINOLOGIES

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BULK REDUCTION:

Process of removing excess material by cutting or grinding a material with rotary instruments to provide a desired anatomic form.

CONTOURING:

Process of producing a desired anatomical form by

cutting or grinding away excess material.

FINISHING:

Process of removing surface defects or scratches created during the contouring process through the use of cutting or grinding instruments or both

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Grinding:

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Process of removing material from a substrate by abrasion with relatively coarse particles

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Polish:

Lustre or gloss produced on a finished surface.

Polishing:

Process of providing lustre or gloss on a material surface.

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Abrasive properties(par ticle size, shape, hardness)

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Speed and pressure of application of abrasive

Difference in hardness of substrate and abrasive

Lubricants used

Properties of the backing/ bonding material – rigidity, elasticity, flexibility, thickness, porosity

Structural properties of substrates

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FACTORS DETERMINING FINISHING AND POLISHING

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PRINCIPLES

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1. CUTTING

Use of any instrument in a blade like

fashion

Regularly arranged blades that remove

small shavings of the substrate

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Unidirectional cutting pattern

2. GRINDING

Removes small particles of a substrate through the action of bonded or coated abrasive instruments

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Predominantly unidirectional

3. POLISHING

Multidirectional in its course of action

Acts on an extremely thin region of the substrate surface fine scratches - not visible unless greatly magnified

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STEPS IN FINISHING AND POLISHING

  1. BULK REMOVAL

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  • CONTOURING

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  • FINISHING

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  • POLISHING

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1. Bulk reduction and Contouring

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  • Removal of excess material through

cutting and grinding

  • Instruments - diamond, carbide and steel burs, abrasive coated disks
  • Desired anatomy and margins must be

achieved

BULK REDUCTION CONTOURING

CARBIDE BUR

8-12 FLUTED

12 - 16 FLUTED

ABRASIVE S

>=100µm

30 - 100 µm

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3. Finishing

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  • Introducing finer scratches to surface of substrate

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  • Provides a blemish free smooth surface.

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  • 18 - 30 fluted carbide burs , fine and super fine diamond burs, or abrasives upto 20 µm in size.

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4. Polishing

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  • Provides lustre.

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  • Smaller particles provide smoother and shinier surfaces

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  • Abrasives of 8-20 µm

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🡨 Adsorbed gases & water vapor(1nm)

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🡨 Oxide (10-100nm)

🡨 BEILBY LAYER (1-100nm)

🡨 Worked layer(1-100nm)

An amorphous disorganized molecular surface layer of highly polished metal which is a result of melting and

🡨 Bulk mastuerrfiaacle flow during machining of the molecular layers such as using a series

of abrasives of decreasing

coarseness during the

polishing processes

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IMPORTANCE OF POLISHING DENTAL RESTORATIONS AND TEETH

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  • Less bacterial colonization

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  • Metallic restoration - prevention of tarnish and corrosion

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  • Comfortable for the patient

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SPEEDS USED FOR FINISHING AND POLISHING

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LOW SPEED-

  • <12000rpm
  • Better tactile sensation
  • Lesser heat generation
  • Cleaning, caries excavation, polishing

MEDIUM SPEED/ INTERMEDIATE SPEED

  • 12000-2,00,000rpm
  • Contouring

HIGH SPEED/ ULTRAHIGH SPEED

  • >2,00,000 rpm
  • Faster, need lesser pressure, vibration
  • Cutting teeth, removing old restorations, gross finishing and contouring

The standard Micomotor handpiece- 35000rpm

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ABRASION AND ABRASIVES

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ABRASIVE ACTION- PRINCIPLE

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Substrate particles are removed

Break atomic bonds

Contact generates tensile and shear stresses

Harder material comes into frictional contact with the substrate

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TYPES OF ABRASION

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  1. TWO BODY WEAR-
    • Abrasive bound to instrument and used to

polish specimen

    • E.g.- Trimmers, abrading burs, bonded abrasives, coated abrasives

Abrasive Substrate

🡨Two body wear

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  1. THREE BODY WEAR
    • Abrasive is a loose slurry between polishing substrate and surface of the specimen to be polished
    • Use of lubricant( water, glycerin or silicone)
    • E.g.- Polishing pastes containing Aluminium oxide, diamond particles

Rubber cup

Abrasive paste

Substrate

🡨 Three body wear

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EROSION

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  • Wear caused by hard particles impacting a substrate surface, carried by a stream of liquid or stream of air. Eg. Sand blasting a surface
  • Chemical erosion

Acid etching

Enhance bonding

Not a method of finishing/polishing

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FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF ABRASION

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Hardness

Shape Size Pressure Speed Lubricants

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HARDNESS

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Relates to durability of an abrasive

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Measure of a material’s ability to resist indentation

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Abrasive particle must be harder than the

surface to be abraded

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First ranking of hardness was published in 1820 by Carl Friedrich Mohs

FRIEDRICH MOHS

Knoop and Vickers hardness tests

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Material

Moh’s

Material

Moh’s

Talc

1

Aluminium oxide

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Gypsum

2

Silicon carbide

9-10

Chalk

3

Boron carbide

9-10

Rouge

5-6

Diamond

10

Pumice

6

SUBSTRATES

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Tripoli

6-7

Acrylic

2-3

Garnet

6.5-7

Pure gold

2.5-3

Tin oxide

6-7

Porcelain

6-7

Sand

7

Amalgam

4-5

Cuttle

7

Dentin

3-4

Tool steel

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Enamel

5-6

Zirconium silicate

7-7.5

Glass

5-6

Tungsten carbide

9

Resin composite

5-7

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BUSTING THE MYTH

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Diamond is the hardest naturally

occurring substance

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However….

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Harder substances are

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  • Synthetic- Wurtzite form of boron nitride (w-BN)

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  • From outer space- Lonsdaleite

(from meteorites)

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SHAPE

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Sharp, irregular particle produces deeper abrasion than

rounder particle under equal applied force

Numerous sharp edges - enhanced cutting efficiency

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Abrasion rate of an abrasive decreases with use

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SIZE

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Larger particles size, abrade a surface more rapidly

Particles based on their size:

  1. Coarse -100 µm to 500 µm,
  2. Medium -10 µm to 100 µm
  3. Fine - 0 to 10 µm

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PRESSURE

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Greater force during finishing

Abrasive cuts deeper into the surface More rapid removal of material

Raise in temperature within the substrate Distortion or physical changes within the substrate

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Deeper and wider scratches are produced by increasing the applied force from F1and F2

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SPEED

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Faster speed

Faster cutting rates

Temperature increases

Greater danger of overcutting

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LUBRICATION

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Minimize the heat buildup

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Facilitates removal of debris

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Cooling action and removal of debris enhances the abrasion process.

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Water, glycerin or silicone ; Water 🡪most common

Excess lubrication – prevent abrasive contact

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ABRASIVE INSTRUMENT DESIGN

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REQUIREMENTS OF AN ABRADING INSTRUMENT-

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Right particle size

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Not produce deep scratches

Sharp edges that break down to expose new edge particles

Not gouge the substrate

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Not permanently deform under load or high temp

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Abrasive motion

  • Abrasive motion can be classified as
  • Rotary- burs
  • Planar- disk
  • reciprocal motion.

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  • ROTARY
  • In rotary motion, the bur in a high speed hand piece rotates in a clockwise direction.

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  • Planar motion
  • disks
  • removes material along a plane.
  • preferably be done in one direction to obtain a smoother surface.

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  • Reciprocal motion
  • two different motions at the same time: part cyclic and part up and down motions.
  • This is useful to access interproximal areas to remove overhangs, to finish sub-gingival margins without creating ditches, and to create embrasures.

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Abrasive grits

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  • Derived from materials that have been crushed and passed through a series of mesh screens

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  • Dental abrasive grits based on particle size are
    • Coarse
    • Medium coarse
    • Medium
    • Fine
    • Superfine

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MAINTENANCE OF THE EFFICIENCY OF ABRASIVE

  • Truing :

Abrasive instrument is run against a harder abrasive block until the abrasive instrument rotates in the hand piece without eccentricity or run out when placed on a substrate.

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  • Dressing :
    1. Reduces instrument to correct working size, shape
    2. Removes clogged debris (abrasive blinding) - Restores grinding efficiency

Truing

Dressing

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2

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Classification of abrasives.

ABRASIVE

VITREOUS

BONDING

RUBBER BONDING

RESINOID BONDING

BONDED

NON BONDED

SINTERED BONDING

DISPERSED IN WATER SOLUBLE MEDIUM

POLISHING PASTES

COATED

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Bonded abrasives-Abrasive particles are incorporated through a binder to form a grinding tool

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  • Particles are bonded by four general methods:

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    • Sintering-

Strongest, produced by fusing particles together

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    • Vitreous bonding-

Abrasive+ glassy ceramic matrix, cold pressed to shape and fired

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    • Resinoid bonding-

Particles cold pressed with resins and then heated to cure the resin

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    • Rubber bonding-

Bonded with latex or silicon based rubber

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Vitreous bonded abrasives

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Sintered Diamond points

Resinoid bonded abrasives

Silicone bonded abrasives

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Non bonded abrasives- not bonded to a substrate ( 3 body wear)

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  • Dispersed in gel or paste form

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  • Polishing pastes 🡪Fine or ultrafine Al2O3(<1μm)or diamond particles(1- 10μm)

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  • Applied to substrate with a nonabrasive device - synthetic foam, rubber, felt, chamois cloth, wheel.

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  • Dispersed in water soluble medium such as glycerin

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Coated abrasive disks and strips

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  • Supplied as disks and finishing strips.
  • Fabricated by securing abrasive particles to a flexible backing material
  • Available in different diameters with thin and very thin

backings.

  • Moisture – resistant backings are advantageous

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Abrasive discs :

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  • Gross reduction, contouring, finishing, and polishing of restoration surfaces
  • Coated with aluminum oxide abrasive

Abrasive strips :

  • With plastic or metal backing are available for smoothening and polishing the interproximal surfaces of direct and indirect bonded restorations

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OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF FINISHING AND POLISHING AGENTS

  1. Impregnated abrasives-

Aluminium oxide Emery

Quartz

Silicon carbide Garnet

Zirconium silicate Cuttle

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  1. Loose abrasives

Aluminum oxide

Ultra fine diamond particles Tin oxide

Pumice

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  1. Cutting Instruments :
    • Tungsten carbide

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  • Bonded abrasive
    • Diamonds
    • Silicon carbide
    • White stone
    • Tripoli
    • Rouge

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According to Hardness

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According to Hardness

  1. Hard abrasive - Diamond, Silicon carbide.

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  • Medium abrasive - Pumice, Silicates, Zirconates.

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  • Soft (Polishing) abrasive - calcites

( Robert Craig)

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Natural abrasives

  1. Arkansas Stone
  2. Chalk
  3. Corundum
  4. Diamond
  5. Emery
  6. Garnet
  7. Pumice
  8. Quartz
  9. Sand
  10. Tripoli
  11. Zirconium silicate
  12. Cuttle
  13. Kieselguhr

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Synthetic Abrasives

  1. Silicon carbide
  2. Aluminum oxide 3.Synthetic diamond 4.Rouge (Iron oxide) 5.Tin oxide

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Arkansas stone

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  • Semi translucent , light gray, siliceous

sedimentary rock.

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  • Contains microcrystalline quartz.

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  • Attached to metal shanks and trued to various shapes

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  • Fine grinding of tooth enamel and metal alloys

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Chalk

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  • Mineral forms of calcite.
  • White abrasive composed of calcium carbonate.
  • Used as a mild abrasive paste to polish tooth enamel, gold foil, amalgam and plastic materials.

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Corundum

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  • Mineral form of aluminum oxide
  • Physical properties are inferior to those of alpha aluminum oxide.
  • Grinding metal alloys
  • A bonded abrasive in several shapes.
  • Used in instrument – White stone

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Natural Diamond

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  • Transparent colorless mineral composed of carbon
  • Superabrasive

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  • Supplied in several forms
    • Bonded abrasive rotary instruments
    • Flexible metal backed

abrasive strips

    • Diamond polishing pastes.

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  • Used on ceramic and resin based composite materials

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Diamond burs color coding and grit size

Bur type

Color

Grit size

ISO no

Supercoarse

Black ring

181μm

544

Coarse

Green ring

151μm

534

Medium

No ring

107-126μm

524

Fine

Red ring

40μm

514

Superfine

Yellow ring

20μm

504

Ultrafine

White ring

15μm

494

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Emery

  • Natural form of an oxide of aluminium
  • Grayish- black corundum
  • Coated abrasive disks, Arbor bands
  • Greater the content of alumina - finer the grade of emery.
  • Finishing metal alloys or acrylic resin materials.

Garnet

  • Dark red, very hard .
  • Comprise - silicates of Al, Co, Mg, Fe, Mn
  • Garnet is coated on paper or cloth with glue.
  • Fractured during grinding 🡪 sharp, chisel-shaped plates
  • Grinding metal alloys or acrylic resin materials.

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Pumice

  • Highly siliceous material of volcanic origin
  • Powder-crushing pumice stone
  • Abrasive action is not very high
  • Polishing tooth enamel, gold foil, dental

amalgam and acrylic resins

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    • Quartz
    • Very hard, colorless, and transparent.
    • Crystalline particles are pulverized to form sharp, angular particles - coated abrasive discs.
    • Grinding tooth enamel and finishing metal alloys.

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Sand

  • Predominantly composed of silica.
  • Rounded to angular in shape.
  • Applied under air pressure to remove refractory investment materials- sandblasting
  • Coated on to paper disks

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  • Tripoli
  • Derived from light weight, friable siliceous sedimentary rock.
  • Rock is ground and made into bars with soft binders
  • Color- white/grey/pink/red/yellow.
  • Polishing for metal alloys and some acrylic resins.

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Zirconium silicate / Zircon

  • Off -white mineral.
  • Ground to various particle sizes - coated abrasive disks and strips.
  • Component of dental prophylaxis pastes

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Cuttle

    • Referred to as cuttle fish, cuttle bone, or cuttle.
    • White calcareous powder
    • Available as a coated abrasive
    • Polishing of metal margins and amalgam restorations.

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Kieselguhr

  • Siliceous remains of minute aquatic plants - diatoms.
  • Coarser form - diatomaceous earth
  • Excellent mild abrasive
  • Risk for respiratory silicosis caused by chronic exposure

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Synthetic Silicon Carbide

  • Extremely hard abrasive and 1st synthetic abrasive
  • Highly effective cutting of metal alloys, ceramics and acrylic resin materials.
  • Abrasive in coated disks and as vitreous - bonded and rubber instruments.

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Aluminum oxide

  • White powder
  • used as bonded abrasives, coated abrasives and air

propelled abrasives.

  • Finishing metal alloys, resin based composites and ceramic materials.
  • Pink and ruby variations- adding chromium compounds

Rouge

  • Consists of iron oxide, which is the fine red abrasive component.
  • Blended in to various soft binders in to a cake form.
  • Used to polish high noble metal alloys.

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Tin Oxide

  • Extremely fine abrasive.
  • Less abrasive than quartz.
  • Polishing teeth and metallic restorations in the mouth.
  • Produces excellent polish of enamel.
  • Mixed with water or glycerin - abrasive paste.

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Synthetic Diamond

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  • Controllable, consistent size and shape.

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  • Resin bonded diamonds have sharp edges

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  • Larger synthetic diamond particles – greenish

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  • Blocks with embedded diamond particles – truing other bonded abrasives

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  • Used primarily on tooth structure, ceramics and resin based composites.

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Polishing instruments

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🡪Rubber abrasive points.

🡪Fine particle disks and strips.

🡪Fine particle polishing pastes

🡪Electrolytic Polishing

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POLISHING DISCS

POLISHING STRIPS

POLISHINGPASTES

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Electrolytic polishing

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  • Electrochemical process
  • Excellent method for Co-Cr alloys

ELECTROLYTES-

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CONC ACIDS-

  • SULPHURIC ACID+ HCl
  • PERCHOLATES
  • ACETIC ANHYDRIDE

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FINISHING OF INDIVIDUAL RESTORATIONS

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ACRYLIC RESINS

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•

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Contour with tungsten carbide burs and sand

paper. Use a rubber point to remove the scratches.

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Apply pumice with a rag wheel, felt wheel, bristle brush or prophy cup.

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Apply Tripoli or a mixture of chalk and alcohol with a rag wheel.

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FLEXIBLE DENTURES

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FINISHING-

  • Use of rubber wheels- pink and brown
  • TC bur

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POLISHING-

  • Use of synthetic pumice
  • Polishing with brown tripoli
  • Use of Black B20 bristle brush without any compound
  • Mirror shine compound

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  • 2 types of kits-
  • 1 Extra oral kits
  • 2. Intra oral kit

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Extraoral Finishing and Polishing

  1. Finishing diamonds
  2. Finishing discs or bonded abrasive wheels
  3. Loose polishing paste used on Robinson’s brush

FINISHING AND POLISHING OF

CERAMICS

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Intraoral polishing of ceramics

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  1. Finishing diamonds.
  2. Finishing discs or Rubber polishing instruments .
  3. Diamond polishing paste

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Diamonds should be used wet to avoid excessive heat. Preferred devices to apply diamond -polishing paste intraorally include enhance polishing 🡪Prophy cups or Robinson brushes.

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FINISHING AND POLISHING OF ALL

CERAMICS

• Contour with flexible diamond disc diamond burs, heatless or polymer stones or greenstones

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Finish with white stones or abrasives impregnated rubber disc, cups and points

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• Apply over glaze or natural glaze on ceramic if necessary

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ALLOYS

Alloys used for PFMs or denture frameworks can be finished with combination of stones, disks and wheels.

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After casting 🡪cleaned of investment debris with water and a tooth brush

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•

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•

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•

Soaked or pickled, in warm HCL acid to remove the

surface oxide layer.

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Small nodules of metal 🡪Carborundum stone.

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The surface of casting 🡪rubber wheel impregnated in abrasive particles (e.g Al2O3 or SiO2) reduces surface roughness to level 0.10 to 0.15 µm.

Final polish 🡪Tripoli and rouge on rag wheel. The final

•

s

urface roughness -0.05 µm.

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FINISHING OF STAINLESS STEEL CROWNS

  • Smoothened and polished with a cloth or chamois wheel on the dental lathe, using Tripoli polishing agent and jeweler’s rouge (iron oxide) .

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  • Debris from the finishing process, accumulated inside the crown, can be removed with a wet cotton swab.

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RECENT ADVANCES

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AIR ABRASION

NANOPARTICLE INCORPORATION

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AIR ABRASIVE TECHNOLOGY

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  • Alternative to rotary instrument cutting.
  • High pressure stream of 25-30µm

Al2O3.

  • ‘Air polishing’- controlled delivery of air, water and Sodium bicarbonate slurry.

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Uses

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  • Cavity preparation
  • Removal of defective restorations
  • Endodontic access through porcelain crowns
  • Minimal preparation to repair crown margins
  • Superficial removal of stains
  • Roughening of internal surfaces of indirect porcelains or composite restorations

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Application Of Nanotechnology In

Abrasives

  • Nano silica abrasives

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  • Particle size of nano silica ranges from 10-90nm and is spherical in shape.

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  • It has been reported that polishing with nano-silica provides high polishing and low surface roughness . Also polishing of teeth with nano silica helps in prevention of damage caused by cariogenic bacteria.

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Biological hazards of the finishing procedure

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  • Aerosols – silica based materials (smaller than 5µm)
  • Silicosis or grinders disease

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  • Precautions -adequate water spray, suction, eye gear, facemasks, proper ventilation

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Precautions

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  • Heat generation during cutting and contouring , finishing and polishing procedures is a major concern.

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  • To avoid adverse effects to the pulp, cool the surface using air water spray and intermittent contact.

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Methods to assess the effectiveness of finishing systems and devices

The most common to asses the effectiveness of finishing and polishing system and devices on dental restorative materials include aided and unaided visual evaluation

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  1. Profilometer
  2. Optical microscope
  3. SEM ( scanning electron microscope )
  4. Reflectometer

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Review of literature

  • The objective of this study was to compare both qualitatively and quantitatively the effects of 4 chairside polishing kits (Exa Technique, Acrylic Polisher HP blue, AcryPoint, Becht Polishing Cream) and conventional laboratory polishing (Universal Polishing Paste for Resins and Metals, Lesk Polishing Liquid) on 3 different types of acrylic resins: autopolymerizing, heat-polymerizing, and injected heat-polymerizing resin materials.
  • Conventional laboratory polishing was found to produce the smoothest surface of denture base acrylic resin.
  • Chairside silicone polishing kits produced a significantly smoother surface of acrylic resin than specimens polished with a tungsten carbide bur.

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Kuhar M et al, Effects of polishing techniques on the surface roughness of acrylic denture base resins, J Prosthet Dent, 2005;93(1):76-85

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Methods Of Polishing Adjusted Porcelain Advocated By Various Authors

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  • Sulik and Plekavich 1981- Hard rubber wheel🡪wet pumice🡪wet tin oxide
  • Klausner et al 1982- Diamond paste and the pumice/whiting.
  • Zalkind et al 1986- Sandblasting with aluminum oxide before refiring.
  • Haywood et al 1988, 1989- Instruments which progressively decrease in particle size

(series of finishing grit diamonds) 30 fluted carbide bur and diamond polishing paste.

  • Goldstein 1989- Cups and points made by Shofu
  • Haimondo et al 1990- Shofu kit 🡪diamond paste.
  • Jagger and Harrison 1994- Series of sandpaper disks of increasing fineness (Soflex) and rubber points (Shofu).

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  • Author suggests- hybrid points with fine grade 15 micron diamond grit
    • Dura-white stones;
    • Silicone rubber points;
    • Silicon rubber cups used in conjunction with a fine grade 2 mm diamond polishing

paste

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Glazing and Finishing Dental Porcelain: A Literature Review Ahed Al-Wahadni

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  • To find out the correlation between the roughness of diamonds and roughness created on dentin after tooth preparation & to measure the surface roughness of dentin after tooth preparation with different grit sizes of diamond rotary instruments

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  • There is positive correlation (r = 0.93) between the roughness of diamonds and roughness created on the dentin
  • Selection of correct grit size and their correct sequence for tooth preparation has an influence on the surface characteristics

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  • So completion of the tooth preparation with a finishing bur appeared to be the method of choice if a smooth tooth preparation surface is preferred

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The effect of grit size of diamonds on the dentinal surface : Dr. Shivangi Sinha

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Finishing and polishing techniques are important in preparing clinically successful restorations .

A definite sequence should be adopted in finishing and polishing of each restoration Finishing and polishing begin with coarse abrasives and end with fine abrasives

The process of abrasion is affected by properties of the abrasive and the material being abraded.

Clinically it is easier to control the rate of abrasion by speed rather than the pressure. Care must be taken to avoid over finishing margins and contours of restorations and to avoid over heating.

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CONCLUSION

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REFERENCES

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  • Anusavice, Phillips Science of Dental Materials, 12th edition, 2012, Elsevier publications, Florida, Pp 231-254
  • Hatrick Eakle Bird Dental Materials 2nd Edition p 143-156
  • Craig . Powers and Wataha, Dental Materials, Properties and manipulation, 8th edition,2005, Elsevier publications, India , Pp 110-28
  • Mahalaxmi Textbook of Dental Materials

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  • Kuhar M et al, Effects of polishing techniques on the surface roughness of acrylic denture base resins, J Prosthet Dent, 2005;93(1):76-85
  • The effect of grit size of diamonds on the dentinal surface : Dr.

Shivangi Sinha

  • Glazing and Finishing Dental Porcelain: A Literature Review Ahed Al-Wahadni

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