1 of 51

Chapter 7

Ionic and Metallic Bonding

7.1 Ions

7.2 Ionic Bonds and

Ionic Compounds

7.3 Bonding in Metals

7.1 Ions >

1

2 of 51

Pyrite (FeS₂) is often mistaken for gold—hence its nickname, “fool’s gold.” Pyrite is an example of a crystalline solid.

CHEMISTRY & YOU

What is fool’s gold?

7.1 Ions >

2

3 of 51

Valence Electrons

How do you find the number of valence electrons in an atom of a representative element?

7.1 Ions >

3

4 of 51

Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an element’s atoms.

7.1 Ions >

4

5 of 51

Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an element’s atoms.

The number of valence electrons largely determines the chemical properties of an element.

7.1 Ions >

5

6 of 51

Valence Electrons

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons

To find the number of valence electrons in an atom of a representative element, simply look at its group number.

7.1 Ions >

6

7 of 51

Valence Electrons

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons

Atoms of the Group 1A elements (hydrogen, lithium, sodium, and so forth) all have one valence electron, corresponding to the 1 in 1A.
Carbon and silicon atoms, in Group 4A, have four valence electrons.
The noble gases (Group 8A) are the only exceptions to the group-number rule: Atoms of helium have two valence electrons, and atoms of all the other noble gases have eight valence electrons.

7.1 Ions >

7

8 of 51

Valence Electrons

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are usually the only electrons involved in chemical bonds.

7.1 Ions >

8

9 of 51

Valence Electrons

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons

As a general rule, only the valence electrons are shown in electron dot structures.
Electron dot structures are diagrams that show valence electrons in the atoms of an element as dots.

Valence electrons are usually the only electrons involved in chemical bonds.

7.1 Ions >

9

10 of 51

This table shows electron dot structures for atoms of some Group A elements.

Interpret Data

4

3

2

1

8A

7A

6A

5A

4A

3A

2A

1A

Group

Period

Electron Dot Structures of Some Group A Elements

Notice that all the electrons within a given group (with the exception of helium) have the same number of electron dots in their structures.

7.1 Ions >

10

11 of 51

Valence Electrons

The Octet Rule

That is, they are stable.

Noble gases, such as neon and argon, are nonreactive in chemical reactions.

7.1 Ions >

11

12 of 51

Valence Electrons

The Octet Rule

That is, they are stable.
In 1916, chemist Gilbert Lewis used this fact to explain why atoms form certain kinds of ions and molecules.
He called his explanation the octet rule.

Noble gases, such as neon and argon, are nonreactive in chemical reactions.

7.1 Ions >

12

13 of 51

Valence Electrons

The Octet Rule

The octet rule states that in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas.

7.1 Ions >

13

14 of 51

Valence Electrons

The Octet Rule

An octet is a set of eight.
Atoms of each of the noble gases (except helium) have eight electrons in their highest occupied energy levels and the general electron configuration of ns²np⁶.

The octet rule states that in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas.

7.1 Ions >

14

15 of 51

Valence Electrons

The Octet Rule

Atoms of metals tend to lose their valence electrons, leaving a complete octet in the next-lowest energy level.
Atoms of some nonmetals tend to gain electrons or share electrons with another nonmetal atom or atoms to achieve a complete octet.

7.1 Ions >

15

16 of 51

Draw the electron dot structure for bismuth.

7.1 Ions >

16

17 of 51

Draw the electron dot structure for bismuth.

Bi

• •

•

7.1 Ions >

17

18 of 51

Formation of Cations

How are cations formed?

7.1 Ions >

18

19 of 51

Formation of Cations

How are cations formed?

An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal numbers of protons and electrons.
An ion forms when an atom or group of atoms loses or gains electrons.

7.1 Ions >

19

20 of 51

Formation of Cations

A positively charged ion, or cation, is produced when an atom loses one or more valence electrons.

7.1 Ions >

20

21 of 51

Formation of Cations

A positively charged ion, or cation, is produced when an atom loses one or more valence electrons.

A sodium atom (Na) forms a sodium cation (Na⁺).
A calcium atom (Ca) forms a calcium cation (Ca⁺).

7.1 Ions >

21

22 of 51

Formation of Cations

Most of these atoms have one to three valence electrons, which are easily removed.

The most common cations are those produced by the loss of valence electrons from metal atoms.

Group 1A Cations

7.1 Ions >

22

23 of 51

Formation of Cations

The number of protons in the sodium nucleus is still eleven, so the loss of one unit of negative charge produces a cation with a charge of 1+.

When forming a compound, a sodium atom loses its one valence electron and is left with an octet in what is now its highest occupied energy level.

Na 1s²2s²2p⁶3s¹ Na⁺ 1s²2s²2p⁶

–e^–

octet

Group 1A Cations

7.1 Ions >

23

24 of 51

Formation of Cations

Group 1A Cations

Both the sodium ion and the neon atom have eight electrons in their valence shells (highest occupied energy levels).

7.1 Ions >

24

25 of 51

Formation of Cations

Group 2A Cations

Magnesium (atomic number 12) belongs to Group 2A of the periodic table, so magnesium atoms have two valence electrons.

•

Magnesium atom (electrically neutral, charge = 0)

• Mg

7.1 Ions >

25

26 of 51

Formation of Cations

Group 2A Cations

Magnesium (atomic number 12) belongs to Group 2A of the periodic table, so magnesium atoms have two valence electrons.

A magnesium atom attains the electron configuration of a neon atom by losing both valence electrons and producing a magnesium cation with a charge of 2+.

• Mg Mg²⁺ + 2e^–

•

loses all its valence electrons

Magnesium atom (electrically neutral, charge = 0)

Magnesium ion (2+ indicates two units of positive charge)

(2 in front of e^– indicates two units of negative charge)

7.1 Ions >

26

27 of 51

Formation of Cations

The figure at right lists the symbols of the cations formed by metals

in Groups 1A and 2A.

Cations of Group 1A elements always have a charge of 1+.
Cations of Group 2A elements always have a charge of 2+.

7.1 Ions >

27

28 of 51

Formation of Cations

An atom of iron may lose two valence electrons, forming the Fe²⁺ cation, or three valence electrons, forming the Fe³⁺ cation.

The charges of cations of the transition metals may vary.

Transition Metal Cations

7.1 Ions >

28

29 of 51

Formation of Cations

Silver, with the electron configuration of 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²2p⁶3d¹⁰4s²4p⁶4d¹⁰5s¹, is an example.
To achieve the structure of krypton, a silver atom would have to lose eleven electrons.
To acquire the electron configuration of xenon, a silver atom would have to gain seven electrons.
Ions with charges of three or greater are uncommon.

Some ions formed by transition metals do not have noble-gas electron configurations (ns²np⁶) and are therefore exceptions to the octet rule.

Transition Metal Cations

7.1 Ions >

29

30 of 51

Formation of Cations

Transition Metal Cations

A copper atom loses its lone 4s electron to form a copper ion (Cu⁺) with a pseudo noble-gas electron configuration, as illustrated below.

7.1 Ions >

30

31 of 51

CHEMISTRY & YOU

Fool’s gold is composed of iron(II) cations (Fe²⁺) and disulfide anions (S₂^2–). Write the electron configuration of the Fe²⁺ion.

7.1 Ions >

31

32 of 51

Fe: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶3d⁶4s²

Fe²⁺: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶3d⁶

CHEMISTRY & YOU

Fool’s gold is composed of iron(II) cations (Fe²⁺) and disulfide anions (S₂^2–). Write the electron configuration of the Fe²⁺ion.

7.1 Ions >

32

33 of 51

How does a cesium atom form a cation?

A. By losing 2 electrons

B. By gaining 1 electron

C. By losing 1 electron

D. By gaining 2 electrons

7.1 Ions >

33

34 of 51

How does a cesium atom form a cation?

A. By losing 2 electrons

B. By gaining 1 electron

C. By losing 1 electron

D. By gaining 2 electrons

7.1 Ions >

34

35 of 51

Formation of Anions

How are anions formed?

7.1 Ions >

35

36 of 51

Formation of Anions

An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.

7.1 Ions >

36

37 of 51

Formation of Anions

An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.

Note that the name of an anion of a nonmetallic element is not the same as the element name.

The name of the anion typically ends in -ide.
Thus, a chlorine atom (Cl) forms a chloride anion (Cl^–).
An oxygen atom (O) forms an oxide anion (O^2–).

7.1 Ions >

37

38 of 51

Formation of Anions

Atoms of nonmetals and metalloids form anions by gaining enough valence electrons to attain the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.

7.1 Ions >

38

39 of 51

Formation of Anions

Atoms of nonmetallic elements attain noble-gas electron configurations more easily by gaining electrons than by losing them because these atoms have relatively full valence shells.

7.1 Ions >

39

40 of 51

Formation of Anions

Atoms of chlorine have seven valence electrons.

A gain of one electron gives a chlorine atom an octet and converts a chlorine atom into a chloride atom.

Atoms of nonmetallic elements attain noble-gas electron configurations more easily by gaining electrons than by losing them because these atoms have relatively full valence shells.

Cl 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁵ Cl^– 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶

+e^–

octet

7.1 Ions >

40

41 of 51

Formation of Anions

Chlorine atoms need one more valence electron to achieve the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.

7.1 Ions >

41

42 of 51

Formation of Anions

All halogen atoms have seven valence electrons and need to gain only one electron to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas.

All halide ions (F^–, Cl^–, Br^–, and I^–) have a charge of 1–.

The ions produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons are called halide ions.

7.1 Ions >

42

43 of 51

Formation of Anions

Oxygen is in Group 6A, and an oxygen atom has six valence electrons.

An oxygen atom attains the electron configuration of neon by gaining two electrons.

7.1 Ions >

43

44 of 51

This table lists some common anions.

3–

P^3–

Phosphide

3–

N^3–

Nitride

2–

S^2–

Sulfide

2–

O^2–

Oxide

1–

I^–

Iodide

1–

Br^–

Bromide

1–

Cl^–

Chloride

1–

F^–

Fluoride

Charge

Symbol

Name

Some Common Anions

Interpret Data

7.1 Ions >

44

45 of 51

What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion? What noble gas shares this configuration?

7.1 Ions >

45

46 of 51

What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion? What noble gas shares this configuration?

S^2–: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶

This is the same configuration as Ar.

7.1 Ions >

46

47 of 51

Key Concepts

To find the number of valence electrons in an atom of a representative element, simply look at its group number.

A positively charged ion, or cation, is produced when an atom loses one or more valence electrons.

An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.

7.1 Ions >

47

48 of 51

Glossary Terms

valence electron: an electron in the highest occupied energy level of an atom
electron dot structure: a notation that depicts valence electrons as dots around the atomic symbol of the element; the symbol represents the inner electrons and atomic nucleus; also called Lewis dot structure

7.1 Ions >

48

49 of 51

Glossary Terms

octet rule: atoms react by gaining or losing electrons so as to acquire the stable electron structure of a noble gas, usually eight valence electrons
halide ion: a negative ion formed when a halogen atom gains an electron

7.1 Ions >

49

50 of 51

Atoms form positive ions (cations) by losing valence electrons and form negative ions (anions) by gaining valence electrons.

BIG IDEA

Bonding and Interactions

7.1 Ions >

50

51 of 51

END OF 7.1

7.1 Ions >

51