Semester 1 final review

Mr. Bradford

Unit 1 Tricky Concepts

• Distribution / Density / Concentration
• Tobler’s First Law of Geography
• Distance Decay / Friction of Distance
• Gravity Model
• Cultural Ecology

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A. Characteristics of Space

1. Distribution – the arrangement of a feature in space
1. Density – the frequency in which something occurs in space, often calculated arithmetically
2. Concentration – the spread of a feature over space, often used to describe changes in distribution
3. Pattern – the geometric arrangement of objects in space

D. Spatial Interaction

1. Tobler’s First Law of Geography states that everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things
2. Distance decay: the tapering off of a process, pattern, or event over a distance

D. Spatial Interaction

3. Distance decay is much less severe today than in the past because of time-space compression

D. Spatial Interaction

4. The gravity model predicts the interactions between people in different areas in the world.

B. Humans and Their Environment

1. Cultural Ecology - Geographic approach that emphasizes human-environment relationships.
2. Environmental determinism holds that human behavior, individually and collectively, is strongly affected by—even controlled or determined by—the physical environment
3. Possibilism is the doctrine that the choices that a society makes depend on what its members need and what technology is available to them
4. 19^th century geographers argued for environmental determinism, while modern geographers embrace possibilism.

Unit 2

• Population Density & Distribution
• Demographic Transition / Epidemiological Transition
• Refugees
• Models of migration
• Population pyramids

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Population clusters: the world’s population can be divided into seven regions, each containing approximately 1 billion people.

B. Population Concentrations

1. People are concentrated in four regions:

a. East Asia

b. South Asia

c. Southeast Asia

d. Western Europe

2. Dry lands, wet lands, cold lands, and high lands are typically not a part of the ecumene.

C. Population Density

1. Arithmetic density - # of people divided by total land area

2. Physiological density - # of people supported by arable land in a region

3. Agricultural density - # of farmers compared to the amount of arable land

A. Demographic Transition

1. Stage 1: Low Growth – very high birth and death rates

2. Stage 2: High Growth – rapidly declining death rates and high birth rates

3. Stage 3: Decreasing Growth – birth rates decline and low death rates

4. Stage 4: Low Growth – very low death and birth rates

C. Changes in Demographic Transition

1. The world’s population is increasing rapidly.

a. No countries are in Stage 1

b. Few are in Stage 4

2. We can control the CDR in many countries.

3. People can control the CBR when they choose to have fewer children.

a. Birthrates decline with increases in economic development and/or use of contraceptives.

E. Epidemiological Transition

1. Epidemiological transition focuses on causes of death at each stage of demographic transition.

a. Stage 1: pestilence and famine (high CDR)

b. Stage 2: receding pandemics (rapidly decreasing CDR)

c. Stage 3: degenerative diseases (moderately declining CDR)

d. Stage 4: delayed degenerative diseases (low but increasing CDR)

B. Population Pyramids

1. Population pyramids are bar graphs that display a country’s population by age and gender.

a. Males on the left and females on the right

2. Age distribution

a. Dependency ratio: # of people too old or too young to work compared to those in their productive years

3. Sex ratio: the proportion of males to females in a population

Rapid Population Growth

Slow Population Growth

Simple Migration Model

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Location A Location B

PUSH

PULL

Migration

Lee’s Model of Migration

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Location A Location B

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Intervening Obstacles

B. Lee’s Model of Migration

1. Doesn’t isolate specific push and pull factors

2. Every location has a range of attributes

- negative

+ positive

0 neutral

3. Different people will have different perceptions of the push and pull factors.

C. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration

1. Every migration flow generates a return or counter-migration.

2. The majority of migrants move a short distance.

3. Migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations.

4. Urban residents are less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas.

5. Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.

D. Zelinsky’s Migration Transition Model

1. Explains migration patterns that occur at different stages of demographic transition.

C. Global Migration Patterns

1. Migration occurs from less developed to more developed countries.

2. Net migration is the difference between in-migrants and out-migrants

Know the major migration patterns (international, interregional, & intraregional) and how the different migration models justify/explain these movements.

C. Refugees

1. Refugees flee their home country for a well-founded fear of being persecuted.

2. Refugees are considered special cases.

3. The process of being recognized as a refugee:

a. Internally-displaced person

b. Asylum seeker

c. Refugee

Unit 3: Industrialization and Economic Development

• Self Sufficiency Path to Development vs international trade approach
• Rostow’s model for development (international trade)
• Dependency Theory
• Wallerstien’s World Systems (Core vs Periphery)
• Weber’s least cost model
• International division of labor
• Comparative advantages
• Gini Coeeficient

A. Self-Sufficiency Path

1. Self-Sufficiency Path Key Elements

a. Limit import of goods

b. Businesses don’t have to compete with international corporations

c. Investment spread equally

d. Minimized discrepancies in wages

2. Challenges to this Path

a. Protection of inefficient businesses

b. Need for large bureaucracy

Read Case Study: India’s Quest for Development on pg. 328-329.

F. International Trade Approach

• Most countries have embraced the international trade approach since the late 20th century

B. Rostow’s Model of Development

C. Dependency Theory

1. Dependency can develop through imperial dominance or financial-technological dominance

D. Wallerstein’s World-System Theory

1. Capitalism led to an international division of labor between core states, peripheral regions, semi-peripheral regions
2. Brandt line – separates the core from the periphery

B. Measuring and Mapping Income Inequality

1. Lorenz curves disclose income inequality within countries, showing the relationship between a country’s income and population.

2. The Gini coefficient shows income inequality. It is computed from the area between the line of equal income distribution and a country’s Lorenz curve.

Measuring and Mapping Income Inequality

Lorenz Curve

C. Weber’s Least Cost Theory Model

1. Alfred Weber’s least cost theory model explains where industries would cluster.
2. His theory focuses on a factory owner’s desire to minimize three categories of cost: transportation, labor, and agglomeration.

D. International Division of Labor

1. Labor is concentrated in the periphery and semi-periphery to take advantage of lower labor costs, whereas research and development is primarily located in the core.
2. High skill production usually occurs in developed countries, and low skill production usually occurs in developing countries.
3. The commodity chain shows the steps from development to consumption.
4. Outsourcing has had a major impact on the distribution of manufacturing.

Manufacturing Value as Percentage of Gross National Income (GNI)

Comparative advantage

• the ability to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another producer
• Combination of site and situation factors that allows a firm to produce their product at a cheaper price, therefore they can sell it cheaper for an equal or greater gain in profits
• Florida’s soil in regards to farming oranges
• Automobiles and access to markets in auto ally

Unit4 : Agriculture and Rural land Use

• Agricultural regions (Distribution of Agriculture) **Study your G.O.s!!!!!
• Neolithic revolution
• Commercial vs. subsistence farming
• Von Thunen Model
• Why farmers face challenges

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B. The First Agricultural Revolution�(Neolithic Revolution)

1. Geographer Carl Sauer suggests that the first tropical plant domestication occurred in S and SE Asia more than 14,000 years ago.

2. Seed crops marked the first AR, which likely originated in the Fertile Crescent.

3. Domestication of animals likely occurred about 8,000 years ago.

NR=The shift from hunting and gathering food, to the keeping of animals and growing food

A. Shifting Cultivation

1. Two features: land is cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture, and land is tended for only a few years at a time.
2. Most often occurs in tropical rainforest regions, such as SE Asia, Central Africa, and Brazil.

B. Intensive Subsistence

1. Found in areas with high population and agricultural densities, especially in East, South, and Southeast Asia.
2. To maximize production, little to no water is wasted.

F. Plantation Farming

1. Usually involves the production of one crop.
2. Common in many tropical areas, like Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
3. Examples: bananas, sugarcane, coffee, tea, cocoa, cotton, rubber, palm oil, etc.
4. Often Cash Crops – not essential to human survival, but have a high profit margin.
• Cocoa bean, Coffee beans, tabacco, etc.

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A. Von Thünen Model - Defined

1. This model shows how distance from a city or market affects the choice of agricultural activity in a uniform landscape.
2. Even when agricultural production doesn’t conform perfectly to the model, concern about land use and transportation costs still explains agricultural patterns today.

B. Von Thünen Model

1. Layer 1: Urban Center/Market
2. Horticulture and Dairy Farming
3. Forestry
4. Grains/Field Crops
5. Extensive Ranching and Grazing

A. Challenges for Commercial Farmers

1. Overproduction – food supplies increase despite constant demand
2. Sustainable agriculture – managing land properly
3. Population growth – Boserup Thesis states that population growth compels subsistence farmers to consider new farming approaches that can produce enough
4. International trade – LDCs need to grow crops people in MDCs want (coffee, tea, cocoa)
5. Drug Crops – cocaine and marijuana in South America and opium and heroin in Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Laos
1. Sold in MDC for their market value

Unit5 : Cities & Urban Land Use

• Contemporary Rural Settlements
• Rank size vs primate cities
• MSA
• Zoning
• Bid rent / density gradient

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C. Contemporary Rural Settlements

1. Dispersed Rural Settlements

a. Farms in isolation from neighbors, spread out across the landscape

b. Most common in the US

c. People were not as unified

d. Wanted to work large tracks of land, not discontinuous fields

2. Enclosure Movement

a. Agricultural efficiency; bad village life

C. Rank-Size Rule

1. Many developed countries conform to the rank-size rule, in which the country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement

2. Many less-developed countries follow the primate city rule, in which the largest settlement, called the primate city, has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement

Chart of 4 largest US Cities (2010 data)

A. The Peripheral Model

1. According to the peripheral model, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road.

2. Around the beltway are nodes of consumer and business services called edge cities.

B. Defining Urban Settlements

1. Cities have been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.

2. An urban area consists of a dense core of census tracts, densely settled suburbs, and low-density land that links the dense suburbs within the core.

a. It includes urbanized areas and urbanized clusters.

3. The metropolitan statistical area measures the functional area of a city, including:

a. An urbanized area w/a population of at least 50,000.

b. The county

c. Adjacent counties with a high population and residents working in the central city’s county.

D. Suburban Sprawl and Segregation

1. The flattening of the density gradient for a metropolitan area means that its people and services are spread out over a larger area

2. US suburbs are characterized by sprawl, the progressive spread of development over the landscape

3. The modern residential suburb is segregated by social class and land uses.

Changes in Density Gradient: 1990�(Bid Rent)