Prentice Hall EARTH SCIENCE

Tarbuck Lutgens

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Chapter �1

Vocab

Antarctic Circle

Aphelion

Arctic Circle

Atmosphere

Autumnal equinox

Biosphere

Ecliptic

Galaxy

Geocentric model

Geology

Gregorian calendar

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Habitable zone

Heliocentric model

Hydrosphere

Julian calendar

Lithosphere

Lunar calendar

Lunisolar calendar

Meteorology

Milky Way Galaxy

Oceanography

Penumbra

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Perihelion

Solar Calendar

Solar Eclipse

Summer Solstice

Tropics

Umbra

Universe

Winter solstice

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1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Closed systems are self contained �(e.g., an automobile cooling system).

◆ Open systems allow both energy and matter to flow in and out of the system �(e.g., a river system).

◆ A system is any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Earth is a dynamic body with many separate but highly interacting parts �or spheres.

◆ Earth science studies Earth �as a system that is composed of numerous parts, or subsystems.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Sources of Energy

• Sun—drives external processes such as weather, ocean circulation and erosional processes

• Earth’s interior—drives internal processes including volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain building

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

◆ Encompasses all sciences that seek to understand

• Earth

• Earth's neighbors in space

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

◆ Earth science includes

4. astronomy, the study of the universe

3. meteorology, the study of the atmosphere and the processes that produce weather

1. geology, the study of Earth

2. oceanography, the study of the ocean

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

Further specializations

• Climatology
• Ecology
• Geochemistry
• Geophysics
• Hydrology
• Mineralogy
• Paleontology
• Petroleum Geology
• Petrology
• Planetary Geology
• Volcanology

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

• The solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula.

◆ Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets formed at essentially the same time.

◆ Nebular Hypothesis

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

• The solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula.

◆ Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets formed at essentially the same time.

◆ Nebular Hypothesis

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

• The nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.

◆ Nebular Hypothesis

• About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began to contract.

• It assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

• Inner planets begin to form from metallic and rocky clumps.

◆ Nebular Hypothesis

• Larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a high percentage of ices.

The Nebular Hypothesis

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

◆ Layers Form on Earth

• As Earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to increase.

• Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the surface.

• Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the primitive atmosphere.

1.1 Review

1.2 A View of Earth

1.2 A View of Earth

1. Hydrosphere

• Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere.

- Is nearly 71% of Earth's surface

- Holds about 97% of Earth's water

• Also includes fresh water found in streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found underground

1.2 A View of Earth

2. Atmosphere

• Thin, tenuous blanket of air

• One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)

3. Biosphere

• Includes all life

• Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere

1.2 A View of Earth

4. Geosphere

• Based on compositional differences, it consists of the crust, mantle, and core.

- Crust—the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth.

- Mantle—the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of �Earth located below the crust.

- Core—the innermost layer of Earth, located beneath the mantle.

22.2 The Earth–Moon–Sun System

◆ Phases of the Moon

• The phases of the moon are the progression of changes in the moon’s appearance during the month.

• Lunar phases are a result of the motion of the moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its surface.

Phases of the Moon

22.2 The Earth–Moon–Sun System

◆ Lunar Motions

• The synodic month is based on the cycle of the moon’s phases. It lasts 29 1/2 days.

• The sidereal month is the true period of the moon’s revolution around Earth. It lasts 27 1/3 days.

22.2 The Earth–Moon–Sun System

• The difference of two days between the synodic and sidereal cycles is due to the Earth–moon system also moving in an orbit around the sun.

◆ Lunar Motions

• The moon’s period of rotation about its axis and its revolution around Earth are the same, 27 1/3 days. It causes the same lunar hemisphere to always face Earth.

Lunar Motions

22.2 The Earth–Moon–Sun System

◆ Solar eclipses occur when the moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the sun, casting a shadow on Earth.

◆ During a new-moon or full-moon phase, the moon’s orbit must cross the plane of the ecliptic for an eclipse to take place.

◆ Lunar eclipses occur when the moon passes through Earth’s shadow.

Solar Eclipse

Lunar Eclipse

Lunar Eclipse

Lunar Eclipse

Earth Moon Scale

22.3 Earth’s Moon

◆ The most widely accepted model for the origin of the moon is that when the solar system was forming, a body the size of Mars impacted Earth. The resulting debris was ejected into space, began orbiting around Earth, and eventually united to form the moon.

Formation of Earth’s Moon

22.3 Earth’s Moon

• A crater is the depression at the summit of a volcano or a depression produced by a meteorite impact.

◆ Craters

• Most craters were produced by the impact of rapidly moving debris.

• Rays are any of a system of bright, elongated streaks, sometimes associated with a crater on the moon.

The Moon’s Surface

The Moon’s Surface

Earth’s Layered Structure

1.2 A View of Earth

• Plate tectonics is the theory that proposes that Earth’s outer shell consists of individual plates that interact in various ways and thereby produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and Earth’s crust itself.

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

• Latitude and longitude are lines on the globe that are used to determine location.

• Latitude is distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.

• Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees.

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

◆ No matter what kind of map is made, some portion of the surface will always look either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers have, however, found ways to limit the distortion of shape, size, distance and direction.

1.3 Mercator Map

Latitude and Longitude are parallel.

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Shows true direction

1.3 Robinson Projection Map

Shows the whole earth, but is very distorted.

1.3 Conic Projection Map

Used to make weather and road maps. Shows relative little distortion of land masses.

1.3 Gnomonic Projection Map

Accurate distance and direction across the oceans

1.3 Polyheadral Projection Map

Shows distance and size/shape of land accurately, but is hard to navigate with

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

◆ Topographic maps represent Earth’s surface in three dimensions; they show elevation, distance directions, and slope angles.

• Contour lines are lines on a topographic map that indicate an elevation.

• Contour interval is the distance in elevation between adjacent contour lines.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Closed systems are self contained �(e.g., an automobile cooling system).

◆ Open systems allow both energy and matter to flow in and out of the system �(e.g., a river system).

◆ A system is any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Earth is a dynamic body with many separate but highly interacting parts �or spheres.

◆ Earth system science studies Earth �as a system that is composed of numerous parts, or subsystems.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Sources of Energy

• Sun—drives external processes such as weather, ocean circulation and erosional processes

• Earth’s interior—drives internal processes including volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain building

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Humans are part of the Earth system.

◆ Consists of a nearly endless array of subsystems (e.g., hydrologic cycle)

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Environment

• Surrounds and influences organisms

• Physical environment encompasses water, �air, soil, and rock

• The term environmental is usually reserved for those aspects that focus on the relationships between people and the natural environment.

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Resources

• Include water, soil, minerals, and energy

• Two broad categories

2. Nonrenewable—cannot be replenished in the near future (e.g., metals, fuels)

1. Renewable—can be replenished (e.g., plants, energy from water and wind)

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Population

• Population of the planet is growing rapidly

• Use of minerals/energy has climbed more rapidly than the overall growth of population

Growth of World Population

1.4 Earth System Science

◆ Caused by people and societies

• Urban air pollution

• Acid rain

◆ Caused by natural hazards

• Landslides

• Ozone depletion

• Global warming

• Earthquakes

◆ Local, regional, and global

6.1 Running Water

◆ Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. This unending circulation of Earth’s water supply is �the water cycle.

Distribution of Earth’s Water

6.1 Running Water

◆ Processes involved in the cycle are

• infiltration—the movement of surface water into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces

• transpiration—the release of water into the atmosphere from plants

• precipitation

• evaporation

• runoff

6.1 Running Water

◆ Balance in the water cycle means the average annual precipitation over Earth equals the amount of water that evaporates.

The Water Cycle

6.1 Running Water

• Gravity causes water to flow downhill. This water will naturally form streams, which join to form rivers.
• Watersheds are a land area that supply water to a river.
• Watersheds are divided by divides.

6.1 Running Water

6.1 Running Water

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?

◆ Science assumes the natural world is

• consistent

• predictable

◆ Goals of science are

• to use the knowledge to predict

• to discover patterns in nature

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?

◆ An idea can become a

• hypothesis—tentative or untested explanation

• theory—tested, confirmed, supported hypothesis

◆ Scientific Method

• Formulate hypotheses

• Gather facts through observation

• Test hypotheses to formulate theories

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?

◆ Scientific knowledge is gained through

• following systematic steps

1. Collecting facts

• theories that withstand examination

• totally unexpected occurrences

2. Developing a hypothesis

3. Conducting experiments

4. Reexamining the hypothesis and accepting, modifying, or rejecting it