INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY 3E

Chapter 15 RELIGION

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FIGURE 15.1

Religions come in many forms, such as this large megachurch. (Photo courtesy of ToBeDaniel/Wikimedia Commons)

Q: HOW DO YOU THINK ABOUT RELIGION?

1. As a guiding principle of my life
2. As a support system
3. As a social structure
4. I’m more spiritual than religious
5. I don’t really think about spirituality or religion

FIGURE 15.2

Universality of religious practice, such as these prayers at the The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, can create bonds among people who would otherwise be strangers. Muslim people around the world pray five times each day while facing the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca (pictured in Section 15.2). Beyond the religious observance, such a unifying act can build a powerful sense of community. (Credit: Arian Zwegers/flickr).

WHAT IS RELIGION?

Religion refers to a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant.

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Religious Experience refers to the conviction or sensation that one is connected to “the divine.”

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Religious Beliefs are specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true.

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Religious Rituals are behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group.

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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

According to Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural; those things that are set apart as "holy.“

Those things people do not set apart as sacred are referred to as profane―the everyday, secular, or "worldly," aspects of life.

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Secularization is the diminishing of religious influence on society.

• decline in religious values in everyday life
• corresponding increase in nonreligious values�

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE

Religion depends on society for its existence, value, and significance.

And society relies on religion.

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Religion:

• provides answers to spiritual mysteries
• offers emotional comfort
• creates a place for social interaction and social control.

FIGURE 15.3

Functionalists believe religion meets many important needs for people, including group cohesion and companionship. Hindu pilgrims come from far away to Ram Kund, a holy place in the city of Nashik, India. One of the rituals performed is intended to bring salvation to the souls of people who have passed away. What need is this practice fulfilling? (Credit: Arian Zwegers/flickr)

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality.

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They are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained.

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Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication from the divine.

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE: FEMINIST THEORY

Theorists have stressed fundamental role women play in religious socialization.

• Women are often primary instructors in formal religious practice within the home, even in religions where men are seen as the spiritual leaders of the family.
• In some cultures (including the U.S.) it seems more common that in a mixed-religion union, children will take the religion of the mother.

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Women also play a vital role as volunteers, staff, and educators.

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However, women generally take subordinate role in religious governance.

FIGURE 15.4

Many religions, including the Catholic faith, have long prohibited women from becoming spiritual leaders. Feminist theorists focus on gender inequality and promote leadership roles for women in religion. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

For many people, religion serves as a reference group to help them define themselves.

Religious symbols, for example, have a meaning to large bodies of people.

Religion provides social meaning for individuals as they learn about beliefs, rituals, and religious ideas from others.

• This process helps contribute to identity, which in turn helps people adjust to their surroundings.
• Social meaning in religion emerges through socialization and from interaction with others in a religious setting.

FIGURE 15.5

The symbols of fourteen religions are depicted here. In no particular order, they represent Judaism, Wicca, Taoism, Christianity, Confucianism, Baha’i, Druidism, Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Shinto, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism. Can you match the symbol to the religion? What might a symbolic interactionist make of these symbols? (Photo courtesy of ReligiousTolerance.org (http://ReligiousTolerance.org) )

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TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

• Cults are religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader
• A Sect is a small, new offshoot of a denomination
• Established Sects are sects that last but do not become denominations
• A Denomination is a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state
• Ecclesia is a religion that is considered the state religion

FIGURE 15.6

Cultural traditions may emerge from religious traditions, or may influence them. People from the same branch of Christianity may celebrate holidays very differently based on where they live. In this image from Guatemala, women dress as if for a funeral as they play a prominent role in a Holy Week (Semena Santa) procession. Even in other nearby Central American countries, the procession may look different from this one.

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TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

• Monotheism is a religion based on belief in a single deity
• Polytheism is a religion based on belief in multiple deities
• Animism is the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world
• Totemism is the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings
• Atheism is the belief in no deities

FIGURE 15.7

How might you classify Mennonites? As a cult, a sect, or a denomination?

Mennonites are the largest group within the Anabaptist branch of Christianity, which also includes Amish people and Hutterites.

Anabaptists are distinguished by many beliefs, but a core difference with other types of Christianity is their belief that baptism (the entry into the church) should not occur until a person is old enough to knowingly participate.

They endured persecution by Catholic and Protestant churches and states. William Penn welcomed them (along with Quakers) into Pennsylvania, which was noted for tolerance.

While they are often associated with Amish people, and some groups have merged or share characteristics, Mennonites are distinct and – for example – many utilize contemporary technlogy that Amish people do not.

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(Photo courtesy of Frenkieb/flickr)

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HINDUISM

The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago in what is now modern-day northwest India and Pakistan.

With roughly one billion followers, Hinduism is the third-largest of the world’s religions.

Hindus believe in a divine power that can manifest as different entities: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain hymns and rituals from ancient India and are mostly written in Sanskrit.

Hindus generally believe in a set of principles called dharma, which refer to one’s duty in the world that corresponds with “right” actions.

Hindus also believe in karma, or the notion that spiritual ramifications of one’s actions are balanced cyclically in this life or a future life (reincarnation).

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BUDDHISM

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama around 500 B.C.E.

Buddha’s teachings encourage Buddhists to lead a moral life by accepting the four Noble Truths:

1. life is suffering
2. suffering arises from attachment to desires,
3. suffering ceases when attachment to desires ceases
4. freedom from suffering is possible by following the “middle way.”

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The concept of the “middle way” is central to Buddhist thinking, which encourages people to live in the present and to practice acceptance of others (Smith 1991).

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Buddhism also tends to deemphasize the role of a godhead, instead stressing the importance of personal responsibility (Craig 2002).

FIGURE 15.8

Meditation is an important practice in Buddhism. A Tibetan monk is shown here engaged in solitary meditation. (Photo courtesy of Prince Roy/flickr)

CONFUCIANISM

Confucianism was developed by Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius), who lived in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.

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Confucianism is more of a philosophy or social system than a religion because it doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal objects.

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It focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices

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In fact, its teachings were developed in context of problems of social anarchy and a near-complete deterioration of social cohesion.

TAOISM

Tao is usually translated as “way” or “path.”

• The founder of the religion is generally recognized to be a man named Laozi, who lived sometime in the sixth century B.C.E. in China.
• Taoist beliefs emphasize the virtues of compassion and moderation.

The central concept of tao can be understood to describe a spiritual reality, the order of the universe, or the way of modern life in harmony with the former two.

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The ying-yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas (Smith 1991).

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Some scholars have compared this Chinese tradition to its Confucian counterpart by saying that “whereas Confucianism is concerned with day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is concerned with a more spiritual level of being” (Feng and English 1972).

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JUDAISM

Abraham is also recognized as a foundation of Christianity and Islam, resulting in the three religions and a few others being referred to as “Abrahamic.”

The sacred Jewish text is the Torah, which Christians also follow as the first five books of the Bible.

Jewish people emphasize moral behavior and action in this world as opposed to beliefs or personal salvation in the next world.

• Ten Commandments: culture is interwoven with that of other religions and of governments who claim to adhere to “Judeo-Christian values.”

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Second-largest religious group in the United States, and the United States is also home to the second largest population of Jewish people, with Israel having the largest.

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Jewish people may identify as an ethnic group as well as a religion (Glauz-Todrank 2014).

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ISLAM

Islam follows the teaching of the prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in 570 C.E. Islam means “peace” and “submission.”

Muhammad, the prophet, is believed to be the messenger of Allah (God), who is divine. The followers of Islam are called Muslims.

The sacred text for Muslims is the Qur’an (or Koran).

Muslims are guided by five beliefs or practices, often called “pillars”:

1. Allah is the only god, and Muhammad is his prophet,
2. daily prayer,
3. helping those in poverty,
4. fasting as a spiritual practice, and
5. pilgrimage to the holy center of Mecca.

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In the United States, Muslim people make up the third-largest religious group after Christian and Jewish people, and that population is expected to become larger than the U.S. Jewish population by about 2040 (Pew Research Center 2018).

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FIGURE 15.9

One of the cornerstones of Muslim practice is journeying to Mecca. In this image, people circle the Kabba, the most sacred place in Islam. (Photo courtesy of Raeky/flickr)

CHRISTIANITY

Today the largest religion in the world, Christianity began 2,000 years ago in Palestine, with Jesus of Nazareth.

Monotheistic, but with three manifestations that they call the Holy Trinity: the father (God), the son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.

Sacred texts vary:

• For instance, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an established Christian sect, also uses the Book of Mormon, which they believe details other parts of Christian doctrine and Jesus’ life that aren’t included in the Bible.

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The largest group of Christians in the United States are members of the Protestant religions, including members of the Baptist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, Pentecostal, and other churches.

However, more people identify as Catholic than any one of those individual Protestant religions (Pew Research Center, 2020).

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FIGURE 15.10

The renowned Howard Gospel Choir of Howard University is made up of students, alumni, and community members. It performs on campus and throughout the world, such as this performance in Ukraine. (Credit: US Embassy Kyiv Ukraine/flickr)

FIGURE 15.11

Religion and religious observance play a key role in every life stage, deepening its emotional and cognitive connections. Many religions have a ceremony or sacrament to bring infants into the faith, as this Baptism does for Christians.

In Judaism, adolescents transition to adulthood through ceremonies like the Bat Mitzvah or Bar Mitzvah.

And many couples cement their relationship through religious marriage ceremonies, as did these members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. (Credit: a: John Ragai/flickr; b: Michele Pace/flickr; c: kristin klein/flickr)

RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES

Liberation Theology is the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena, and it is most often seen in attempts to reduce or eliminate social injustice, discrimination, and poverty.

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A Megachurch is a Christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services

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Secularization and fundamentalism:

• Both are increasing
• Rising number of people who identify as having no religious affiliation, which in a 2019 Pew Poll reached a new high of 26 percent, up from 17 percent in 2009 (Pew Research Center, 2020).
• But the motivations and meanings of having “no religion” vary significantly: some make a conscious decision to leave, others drift away or reduce their practice, others take on other spiritual practices.

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RELIGIOUS WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCE

A survey of U.S. adults asked about regularity of religious service attendance. (Credit: Pew Research Center, 2020)

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