Second-wave Civilizations
600 BCE - 600 CE
*As states and empires increased in size and contacts between regions intensified, human communities transformed their religious and ideological beliefs and practices.
I. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among people and an ethical code to live by.
A. The association of monotheism with Judaism further developed with the codification of the Hebrew Scriptures, which also reflected the influence of Mesopotamian cultural and legal traditions. The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Roman empires conquered various Jewish states at different points in time. These conquests contributed to the growth of Jewish diaspora communities around the Mediterranean and Middle East.
Judaism
Monotheistic - Yahweh
Important figures: Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon
Important text:�Torah
Area:�Middle East; Jerusalem, Israel
Purpose: The covenant
*born into it
B. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions—developing later into what was known as Hinduism. These beliefs included the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahman and teachings about dharma and reincarnation, and they contributed to the development of the social and political roles of a caste system.
Hinduism
Polytheistic - Brahman (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva)
Important figures: n/a
Important text:�Vedas,Upanishads
Area:�South Asia (India subcontinent)
Purpose:�Liberation from reincarnation
*Born into it
II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.
A. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and collected by his followers in sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism branched into many schools and changed over time as it spread throughout Asia—first through the support of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants and the establishment of educational institutions to promote Buddhism’s core teachings.
Buddhism
No gods/Polytheistic
Important figures: Buddha (siddhartha gautama)
Important text:�Tripitaka, Mahayana
Area:�South Asia (India subcontinent) and Asia
Purpose:�Liberation from reincarnation
*universalizing (anyone can join)
B. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius. They were elaborated by key disciples, including rulers such as Wudi, who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China.
Confucianism
Secular philosophy
Important figures: Confucius
Important text:�The Analects
Area:�China
Purpose:�Social-political harmony and organization
*philosophy
C. In major Daoist writings, the core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese culture.
Daoism
Secular philosophy
Important figures: Laozi
Important text:�Tao te ching
Area:�China
Purpose:�Individual harmony
*philosophy
D. Core beliefs of Christianity were based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded by his disciples and their belief in his divinity. Christianity drew on Judaism as well as Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through the e orts of missionaries, merchants, and early martyrs through many parts of Afro-Eurasia and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of Emperor Constantine.
Christianity
Monotheistic - God (Yahweh)
Important figures: Jesus of Nazareth
Important text:�The Bible
Area:�Middle East, Africa, Europe
Purpose:�Social justice
*universalizing (anyone can join)
E. Greco–Roman religious and philosophical traditions offered diverse perspectives on the study of the natural world, the connection to the divine, and the nature of political power and hierarchy. Some of these perspectives emphasized logic, empirical observation, and scientific investigation.
Greco-Roman Rationalism
Secular philosophy
Important figures: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Important text:�Multiple non-fiction works by Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Area:�Mediterranean
Purpose:�Understanding of the world
*philosophy
F. Art and architecture reflected the values of religions and belief systems.
III. Belief systems generally reinforced existing social structures while also offering new roles and status to some men and women.
A. Confucianism emphasized filial piety (obedience to parents).
B. Some Buddhists and Christians practiced a monastic life.
IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued and in some places were incorporated into major religious traditions.
A. Shamanism, animism, and ancestor veneration continued in their traditional forms in some instances, and in others were incorporated into other religious traditions.
**As the early states and empires grew in number, size, and population, they frequently competed for resources and came into conflict with one another.
I. The number and size of key states and empires grew dramatically as rulers imposed political unity on areas where previously there had been competing states.
A. Key states and empires that grew included:
• Southwest Asia: Persian empires
• East Asia: Qin and Han empires
• South Asia: Mauryan and Gupta empires
• Mediterranean region: Phoenicia and its colonies, Greek city-states and colonies, and Hellenistic and Roman empires
• Mesoamérica: Teotihuacan, Maya city-states
II. Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based, in part, on the success of earlier political forms.
A. In order to organize their subjects, in many regions imperial rulers created administrative institutions, including centralized governments, as well as elaborate legal systems and bureaucracies.
B. Imperial governments promoted trade and projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques, including issuing currencies; diplomacy; developing supply lines; building fortifications, defensive walls, and roads; and drawing new groups of military officers and soldiers from the location populations or conquered populations.
III. Unique social and economic dimensions developed in imperial societies in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.
A. Imperial cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and political administration for states and empires.
B. The social structures of empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers, slaves, artisans, merchants, elites, or caste groups.
C. Imperial societies relied on a range of methods to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites.
D. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period.
IV. The Roman, Han, Persian, Mauryan, and Gupta empires encountered political, cultural, and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline, collapse, and transformation into successor empires or states.
A. Through excessive mobilization of resources, erosion of established political institutions, and economic changes, imperial governments generated social tensions and created economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of elites.
B. Security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions, challenged imperial authority.