Module Thirteen: The Rest Is History

(1850 CE - 1862 CE)

Professor Ryan Lancaster

Sherman's March to the Sea �(1864 CE)

• On September 2, 1864, Union General William T. Sherman captured Atlanta, a critical Confederate hub with vital resources like railroads and munitions factories.
• Atlanta's fall severely weakened Confederate morale and raised doubts about their chances of victory.
• Sherman believed the South's strength relied on civilian support and infrastructure, not just military force.
• To disrupt these resources, Sherman planned the "March to the Sea" to devastate Georgia's economy and weaken civilian support for the Confederacy.

Sherman's March to the Sea �(1864 CE)

• On November 15, 1864, Sherman began a 285-mile march from Atlanta to Savannah with 60,000 troops, spread over two wings 30 miles apart.
• The Union forces destroyed the property of the resistance, seized food, and confiscated livestock but did not burn entire towns.
• Union troops fought only once, on November 22 at Griswoldville, winning decisively with 650 Confederate casualties.
• Sherman's troops encountered little resistance, leaving behind destroyed bridges, felled trees, and burned barns.

Sherman's March to the Sea �(1864 CE)

• "Bummers" looted farms, seized supplies, and set fire to anything they couldn't carry, causing widespread devastation.
• Sherman reached Savannah on December 21, 1864, and presented the city and 25,000 bales of cotton to Lincoln as a "Christmas gift."
• Continuing his strategy, Sherman devastated South Carolina in 1865, hastening the Confederacy's surrender in April.
• By the campaign's end, Sherman's forces caused $1.6 billion in damage, crippling Southern infrastructure for years.

Ironclads�(1862 CE)

• Ironclads were steam-powered warships armored with iron or steel, developed from 1859 to the 1890s to counter the vulnerability of wooden ships to explosive shells.
• They replaced wooden warships, easily destroyed by new, powerful shells, marking a shift in naval warfare.
• The first major ironclad clash occurred in 1862 during the American Civil War, confirming the ironclad's superiority over wooden ships.
• By the late 19th century, ironclads evolved into modern steel-built battleships and cruisers, transforming naval architecture.

Ironclads�(1862 CE)

• This shift was fueled by advancements in naval guns, steam engines, and metallurgy, making steel shipbuilding viable.
• Ironclads quickly became obsolete due to rapid technological advances, with naval tactics adapting.
• In May 1861, the Confederate Congress allocated $2 million to purchase ironclads, and by mid-1861, began converting wooden ships.
• On October 12, 1861, CSS Manassas became the first ironclad to engage in combat during the Battle of the Head of Passes.
• In February 1862, the Confederate Navy introduced CSS Virginia, a more powerful ironclad rebuilt from a scuttled ship.

Ironclads�(1862 CE)

• By then, the Union had seven ironclad gunboats and the armored frigate USS New Ironsides, bolstering its naval power.
• The first ironclad battle occurred on March 9, 1862, when the Union deployed Monitor to defend against Virginia at Hampton Roads, confirming ironclad dominance.
• During this battle, Monitor and Virginia engaged in a standoff, proving that wooden ships were obsolete with their impenetrable armor.
• Union forces built river ironclads on the western front, beginning with converted riverboats and advancing to the City-class ironclads, crucial for Union river operations.

Piracy Part Four�(1861 CE)

• At the start of the Civil War, the Confederacy sought to disrupt Northern trade by enlisting privateers to attack U.S. shipping, weakening the Union's economy.
• Backed by the Confederacy, privateers seized ships and cargo following maritime prize rules, ensuring legal validation of captures.
• Captured ships were brought to courts in neutral ports or sponsoring nations, which determined the legality and fate of the goods.
• If deemed legal, ships and cargo were auctioned, with proceeds split between ship owners and crew, incentivizing privateering.

Piracy Part Four�(1861 CE)

• Privateers could also target enemy warships and claim financial rewards from sponsoring governments, often in gold.
• Early in the war, Confederate morale was high, and ship owners sought letters of marque to engage in privateering.
• By the end of 1861, escalating threats from the U.S. Navy and mounting losses led most ship owners to abandon privateering.
• The Civil War marked the last significant use of privateering as changing international norms and tactics rendered it obsolete.

Piracy Part Four�(1861 CE)

• To combat privateering, Lincoln's Navy Secretary Gideon Welles ordered joint Army-Navy actions to seize Southern ports, neutralizing Confederate efforts by 1861's end.
• Union victories in 1861, including capturing key forts, disrupted Confederate privateering and naval strategy.
• Army-led operations stalled, highlighting the importance of Army-Navy collaboration for achieving early war objectives.
• The Lincoln administration initially viewed the conflict as an insurrection, denying the Confederacy's legitimacy and treating its actions as rebellion.

Andersonville Prison�(1864 CE)

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• Andersonville, a notorious Confederate prison, had more prisoners at any given time than other camps, known for overcrowding and harsh conditions.
• Established in early 1864, it replaced Richmond as a secure facility for Union prisoners, but logistical issues hindered its success.
• Over 14 months, more than 45,000 Union soldiers were held at Andersonville, enduring harsh conditions with a high mortality rate.
• Nearly 13,000 Union prisoners died from illness, malnutrition, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and exposure.

Andersonville Prison�(1864 CE)

• The Confederate government struggled to provide adequate housing, food, clothing, or medical care due to economic decline, poor transportation, and military supply needs.
• The first prisoners arrived in February 1864, with 400 more arriving daily, rapidly increasing the prison's population.
• By August 1864, the prison held 33,000 men in a space meant for 10,000, worsening overcrowding and conditions.
• Extreme overcrowding and a failed prisoner exchange system led to suffering and high mortality.

Andersonville Prison�(1864 CE)

• After the war, Captain Henry Wirz, the prison commandant, was arrested and charged with harming prisoners, though no conspiracy was proven.
• Wirz was tried, found guilty, and executed in Washington, DC, on November 10, 1865, the only Civil War figure executed for war crimes.
• Andersonville prison closed in April 1865 after the war, and prisoners returned to civilian life or Federal service.
• In July-August 1865, Clara Barton, soldiers, and Dorence Atwater visited Andersonville Cemetery to mark over 12,000 graves.
• Atwater, a former prisoner, made a personal copy of death records to ensure proper identification of the fallen Union soldiers.

Emancipation Proclamation�(1862 CE)

• On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, declaring enslaved individuals in rebellious states "forever free" by January 1, 1863.
• The January 1863 formal proclamation freed enslaved people in Confederate-held areas but excluded Union-controlled territories.
• Lincoln began drafting the proclamation in the summer of 1862, presenting it to his divided cabinet for feedback.
• Secretary of State William H. Seward advised delaying the proclamation until a Union victory, which Lincoln followed.

Emancipation Proclamation�(1862 CE)

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• On September 17, 1862, Union forces halted the Confederate advance at the Battle of Antietam, giving Lincoln leverage to proceed with emancipation.
• Following Antietam, Lincoln issued the preliminary proclamation, urging Confederate states to rejoin by January 1, 1863, or face emancipation.
• On January 1, 1863, Lincoln signed the final Emancipation Proclamation, which did not include gradual emancipation, compensation for enslavers, or resettlement.
• The proclamation exempted the border slave states and parts of three Confederate states under Union control, leaving many enslaved individuals in bondage.

Emancipation Proclamation�(1862 CE)

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• Though its immediate effect was limited, the proclamation marked a turning point, making abolition a central war aim.
• While not freeing many enslaved individuals, it reframed the war's moral and political focus around slavery.
• Internationally, it deterred Britain and France from supporting the Confederacy due to their anti-slavery stance.
• The proclamation laid the groundwork for slavery's eventual abolition in the U.S. and the dismantling of the institution.

Gettysburg Address�(1863 CE)

• The Battle of Gettysburg, one of the Civil War's bloodiest, took place July 1–3, 1863, with Confederate forces led by General Lee against the Union Army.
• Thousands of Union soldiers were hastily buried on-site, highlighting the need for a proper cemetery.
• Local attorney David Wills spearheaded efforts for a National Cemetery at Gettysburg and planned a dedication to honor Union soldiers.
• Initially scheduled for October 23, 1863, the dedication was postponed to November for final preparations.

Gettysburg Address�(1863 CE)

• On November 2, Wills invited President Lincoln to speak, requesting "a few appropriate remarks" in honor of the fallen.
• Lincoln saw the invitation as a chance to address the American people on the Civil War's purpose.
• Contrary to legend, Lincoln had drafted much of the speech before leaving Washington on November 18.
• On November 19, 1863, Lincoln addressed about 15,000 people, delivering the now-famous Gettysburg Address in under 275 words.

Gettysburg Address�(1863 CE)

• His speech linked the Civil War to 1776's ideals, calling for "a new birth of freedom."
• Lincoln urged the living to honor the fallen by preserving the "government of the people, by the people, for the people."
• His address placed the Declaration of Independence as America's foundation above the Constitution.
• Over time, the Gettysburg Address became a defining statement of American values, reframing the Civil War as a fight for equality and unity.

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Appomattox Courthouse�(1865 CE)

• On March 25, 1865, General Robert E. Lee launched his final Confederate assault at Fort Stedman in a bid to break the Petersburg siege.
• On April 1, 1865, Union forces under General Grant counterattacked at Five Forks, forcing Lee’s army to abandon Richmond and Petersburg.
• As Lee's troops retreated along the Appomattox River, they aimed to reach supplies at Appomattox Station sent from Lynchburg.
• Union cavalry under General George A. Custer reached Appomattox Station on April 8, destroying three Confederate supply trains and blocking resupply.

Appomattox Courthouse�(1865 CE)

• On April 7, recognizing Lee’s situation, Grant urged him to surrender, though Lee initially hoped to reach supplies further west.
• On April 8, Lee requested Grant’s surrender terms, signaling potential willingness to negotiate as options dwindled.
• On April 9, with supplies gone and surrounded, Lee ordered a retreat but faced overwhelming Union resistance.
• By mid-morning, Confederate soldiers raised flags of truce, and both generals agreed to discuss surrender terms.

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Appomattox Courthouse�(1865 CE)

• That afternoon, Grant and Lee met at Wilmer McLean’s house, where Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia, prioritizing his men’s lives.
• Grant paroled the Confederate soldiers, instructing Union troops to refrain from celebrating or humiliating their defeated opponents.
• On April 12, a formal ceremony marked the disbanding and parole of Lee’s army, ending organized Confederate resistance in Virginia.
• Lee’s surrender prompted other Confederate forces to lay down arms, concluding the Civil War without a formal peace treaty.

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Battle of Palmito Ranch�(1865 CE)

• The Battle of Palmito Ranch, often considered the Civil War's last battle, occurred on May 12-13, 1865, over a month after the Confederacy’s surrender.
• This battle, near Brownsville, Texas, along the Rio Grande, saw Union and Confederate forces clash despite a predominantly observed ceasefire.
• Union Colonel Theodore H. Barrett, newly in command of an all-black regiment with no combat experience, launched a surprise attack on a Confederate camp near Fort Brown.
• Barrett's forces captured a few prisoners on the first day, but on May 13, Confederate Colonel John S. Ford countered, securing a Confederate victory.

Battle of Palmito Ranch�(1865 CE)

• Confederate artillery, allegedly from the French Army in Matamoros, shocked Union forces, contributing to their retreat.
• Private John J. Williams of the 34th Indiana Infantry, the last known soldier killed in the Civil War, died in this battle.
• Union and Confederate officers in Brownsville knew of Lee’s surrender, yet hostilities continued at Palmito Ranch.
• Barrett partly sought battle to secure horses for 300 unmounted cavalrymen in his brigade.

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Battle of Palmito Ranch�(1865 CE)

• Brigadier General Egbert B. Brown also ordered Barrett to seize Confederate cotton in Brownsville as contraband.
• Many Confederate officers in Texas, evading capture, crossed into Mexico with troops and supplies, possibly to join French forces or support Juárez.
• In response, the Union Military Division of the Southwest stationed 50,000 troops along the Gulf Coast and Rio Grande, wary of French influence in Mexico.
• After the battle, Barrett accused Captain Morrison of negligence, but Confederate Colonel Ford’s testimony led to Morrison’s acquittal.

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The 13th Amendment�(1865 CE)

• In 1865, the 13th Amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery across the United States.
• The Amendment states: “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime... shall exist within the United States.”
• This was the first explicit mention of slavery in the Constitution, though slavery existed in America since the 17th century.
• Founding documents like the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution emphasized freedom but ignored slavery in the 13 colonies.

The 13th Amendment�(1865 CE)

• In April 1864, the Senate passed a slavery ban by a two-thirds majority, advancing the 13th Amendment.
• The Amendment faced opposition in the House, particularly from Democrats during an election year.
• Lincoln’s reelection initially appeared uncertain, but Union victories helped him defeat Democrat George McClellan.
• When Congress reconvened in December 1864, Republicans prioritized the amendment vote, with Lincoln supporting political efforts to secure approval.

The 13th Amendment�(1865 CE)

• Rumors of Confederate peace talks almost delayed the Amendment, but Lincoln assured key supporters the vote could proceed.
• On January 31, 1865, the House narrowly passed the Amendment, 119-56, achieving the required two-thirds majority.
• Lincoln endorsed a joint resolution sending the Amendment to states for ratification but was assassinated before its final adoption in December 1865.
• Following ratification, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, combating discriminatory black codes in former Confederate states and requiring Amendment ratification for federal representation.

Photojournalism�(1861 CE)

• For the first time, civilians saw the brutal realities of war through battlefield photos, dispelling Victorian-era romanticism of battle.
• Civil War photography was complex and slow, requiring photographers to set up and develop images under challenging conditions.
• In 1861, wet-plate photography was the dominant method, involving delicate glass plates prone to failure on the battlefield.
• Photographers used heavy wagons to carry equipment and darkrooms, adding logistical challenges to capturing images.

Photojournalism�(1861 CE)

• About 70% of Civil War photos were stereoviews, a 3D format that enhanced viewer immersion.
• Stereoviews were made with a twin-lens camera to mimic depth, becoming central to Civil War photography’s popularity.
• These 3D images were printed on cards for special viewers, but the stereoview format faded from history.
• While Mathew Brady is often credited with Civil War photography, he relied on others, like Alexander Gardner and Timothy O'Sullivan, for battlefield shots.

Photojournalism�(1861 CE)

• Many iconic Civil War photos credited to Brady were taken by his staff, overshadowing Gardner’s contributions.
• Working for Brady, Gardner photographed Antietam's aftermath, creating haunting images of the carnage that became a sensation.
• Gardner’s Antietam photos, displayed in Brady's New York studio, were widely praised for their raw depiction of war's grim reality.
• Although Gardner may have posed bodies for emotional impact, there's no clear evidence of widespread manipulation in Civil War photography.

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The Aftermath of War�(1865 CE)

• Post-war, the North and West gained wealth, while the South faced nearly a century of economic hardship.
• The Civil War ended the political dominance of enslavers and wealthy Southern elites, reshaping U.S. power dynamics.
• Historians often argue that the North’s larger population and resources made its victory probable.
• Confederate forces pursued a defensive strategy to make Northern victory too costly.

The Aftermath of War�(1865 CE)

• Unlike the Confederacy, the Union had to conquer Southern territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.
• Lincoln’s ability to lead the war depended on public support, not autocratic power.
• The Civil War led to 1,030,000 casualties, or 3% of the U.S. population, including 620,000 soldier deaths, mostly from disease.
• Civil War deaths surpassed those of all other U.S. wars throughout Vietnam, highlighting its unprecedented impact.

The Aftermath of War�(1865 CE)

• African American soldiers bore high risks, making up 10% of Union deaths, including 15% from disease and nearly 3% in combat.
• Casualties were exceptionally high among Black troops, with about 20% dying in the last 18 months of the war.
• Black soldiers faced higher mortality rates than white troops due to more significant risks in service.
• The widely cited figures of 360,000 Union and 260,000 Confederate soldier deaths are likely underestimates, according to historians.

Pinkertons�(1861 CE)

• In 1850, Scottish immigrant Allan Pinkerton and Chicago attorney Edward Rucker founded the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, one of the first private security and detective firms in the U.S.
• Allan Pinkerton gained fame in 1861 by uncovering an assassination plot against President-elect Abraham Lincoln, boosting the agency's reputation.
• Lincoln then employed Pinkerton agents to gather intelligence on the Confederacy and provide security, establishing their role in wartime espionage.
• The Pinkerton Agency was progressive for its time. It hired women and minorities, many of whom served as undercover operatives and spies.

Pinkertons�(1861 CE)

• They pioneered criminal tracking by systematically documenting suspects with a "Rogues' Gallery" of mug shots and case histories.
• Agents cataloged criminals' features, collected news clippings, and compiled rap sheets, creating a database more advanced than government records.
• As the U.S. expanded west, the Pinkertons served as bounty hunters for railroads and express companies, tracking down outlaws in frontier towns.
• They famously infiltrated the Reno gang and pursued figures like Butch Cassidy, solidifying their Wild West lawman status.

Pinkertons�(1861 CE)

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• Despite successes, they failed to capture Jesse and Frank James, revealing limits in their manhunt abilities.
• The Pinkertons gained a darker reputation by breaking strikes, spying on unions, and intimidating workers during violent labor clashes.
• After Allan Pinkerton died in 1884, his sons expanded the agency to 2,000 detectives and 30,000 reserves by the 1890s, even outnumbering the U.S. Army.
• Ohio outlawed the Pinkertons due to their power, and as the FBI rose, their prominence in crime-fighting declined in the early 20th century.

The Camel Corps�(1855 CE)

• In 1836, Major George H. Crosman suggested using camels for military transport after observing their effectiveness in desert regions during the Florida Indian wars.
• By 1848, Major Henry C. Wayne studied camels further, finding them ideal for military expeditions in arid areas due to their endurance.
• Senator Jefferson Davis became an advocate for military camels, and in 1853, as Secretary of War, he successfully pushed for their importation.
• Congress approved $30,000 on March 3, 1855, and Davis launched the U.S. Camel Corps to aid desert transport in the southwestern U.S.

The Camel Corps�(1855 CE)

• Major Wayne and Lt. David Dixon Porter sailed on June 4, 1855, on the USS Supply to acquire camels. By 1856, they had secured 33 from North Africa and the Middle East.
• The camels arrived in Indianola, Texas, on May 14, 1856, and were marched to Camp Verde, where the Army began testing them.
• A second expedition in 1857 added 41 more camels to Camp Verde, boosting the herd to about 70 and starting a small breeding program.
• During the Civil War, Confederate forces briefly controlled Camp Verde, using some camels for transport.

The Camel Corps�(1855 CE)

• After the war, the Union reoccupied Camp Verde, but interest in camels waned, leading the Army to auction the remaining animals by 1864.
• 1866, the government sold its last camels to private buyer Bethel Coopwood, officially ending the Camel Corps experiment.
• The final camel sighting near Camp Verde was in 1875, marking the end of the project, which failed partly due to lack of training.
• The Smithsonian Institution holds the skeleton of a camel killed in a rutting incident at Fort Tejon, preserving a relic of the Camel Corps.

The King of Beaver Island�(1856 CE)

• In the early 1840s, lawyer James Jesse Strang of Wisconsin Territory converted to Mormonism five months before Joseph Smith's assassination.
• Smith's death created a leadership vacuum, sparking a struggle for control with multiple claimants.
• Strang claimed a letter from Smith, postmarked before his death, named him the successor.
• He also asserted divine appointment, claiming an angel ordained him as leader.

The King of Beaver Island�(1856 CE)

• While Brigham Young led settlers to Salt Lake City, Strang founded a rival faction in Voree, Wisconsin.
• In the late 1840s, Strang and followers moved to Beaver Island, encountering fishermen and Chippewa families.
• Strang developed the island into a thriving community, building infrastructure and launching a newspaper, The Northern Islander.
• Strang capitalized on the Lake Michigan trade, selling cordwood to passing steamships.

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The King of Beaver Island�(1856 CE)

• 1850, Strang crowned himself "King" of Beaver Island in a dramatic ceremony.
• Tensions with locals grew due to Strang's controversial policies, including regulating women's clothing and practicing polygamy.
• Strang's authoritarian rule and polygamy sparked dissent, though he served two terms in Michigan's legislature.
• In June 1856, conspirators shot Strang and fled with aid from the USS Michigan, leading to his death and the expulsion of his followers.

The Pony Express�(1860 CE)

• The Pony Express, a horse-rider mail service, operated from Missouri to California from April 3, 1860, to October 26, 1861, under the Central Overland California and Pikes Peak Express Company.
• It reduced message delivery time between the East and West coasts to about 10 days.
• The service was key in connecting California to the Union.
• Before the transcontinental telegraph, the Pony Express was the fastest communication method across the nation.

The Pony Express�(1860 CE)

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• Despite financial backing, it went bankrupt after 18 months, outpaced by the telegraph.
• It demonstrated the feasibility of year-round nationwide communication.
• Afterward, the Pony Express became a symbol of the American West and individualism.
• Before it, mail took 25 days by stagecoach or months by sea.

The Pony Express�(1860 CE)

• The service had 200 relay stations across the U.S., with riders switching horses every 10-15 miles.
• Riders, often young men, averaged 20 years old, with some as young as 11.
• In March 1861, the service delivered Lincoln's inaugural address in 7 days, 17 hours.
• Despite challenges, only six riders died, and 35,000 pieces of mail were delivered.

California Police Tax�(1862 CE)

• In the 1860s, officials targeted Chinese workers in mining with a tax due to white settlers' views of them as labor competition.
• White settlers saw the Chinese as inferior, unassimilable, and problematic in terms of religion, hygiene, and intelligence.
• Many European settlers held discriminatory beliefs about the Chinese, viewing them as incapable of assimilating and inferior in intelligence and cleanliness.
• In April 1862, California passed the "Chinese Police Tax," a racially-targeted levy on Chinese individuals to generate revenue.

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California Police Tax�(1862 CE)

• The law used the derogatory term "coolie" and required Chinese individuals 18+ to pay $7.50 quarterly ($30 annually or ~$500 today).
• In 1862, Oregon imposed a $5 annual tax on African Americans, Chinese, mixed-race individuals, and Hawaiians, institutionalizing racial discrimination in tax policy.
• In 1864, Washington passed a similar law, "AN ACT TO PROTECT FREE WHITE LABOR," imposing a $6 quarterly tax on Chinese laborers.
• Washington's law mirrored California's but with a slightly higher tax and allowed sheriffs to collect, keeping 25% for themselves.

California Police Tax�(1862 CE)

• The tax collection system in Washington was prone to corruption, with sheriffs incentivized to over-collect.
• The extent of enforcement and consistency of tax collection across counties in Washington must be clarified, as this suggests uneven implementation.
• Despite its discriminatory nature, the Chinese Police Tax was legally challenged and struck down by the California Supreme Court in 1862.

Cochise�(1860 CE)

• Cochise's early life is largely unknown, but his 1861 capture and charge of abducting a rancher's son sparked tensions with the US, leading to future conflicts.
• By the mid-19th century, Cochise was a respected Apache leader in southern Arizona and northern Mexico, with significant influence over his people.
• Cochise resented the encroachment of Mexican and American settlers on Apache land, viewing it as a threat to their sovereignty.
• In retaliation, Cochise led raids on settlers, prompting military responses from both the US and Mexico.

Cochise�(1860 CE)

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• In October 1860, Cochise's group raided John Ward's ranch and abducted his son, Felix Tellez, escalating tensions.
• Ward, suspecting Cochise, pressured the US Army to find and punish him, demanding his son's return.
• The US Army, under Lieutenant George Bascom, invited Cochise and his men to a staged meeting, then captured them in an ambush.
• Cochise denied the accusations, but after being unjustly detained, he escaped, further escalating the conflict.

Cochise�(1860 CE)

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• Over the next decade, Cochise led intense raids on American settlements, causing panic, casualties, and property damage.
• In 1872, the US offered Cochise a reservation in southeastern Arizona, which he reluctantly accepted to end hostilities.
• Cochise sought peace, stating, "The white man and the Indian are to drink of the same water, eat of the same bread, and be at peace," but died before seeing it realized.
• Cochise died in 1874, likely from stomach cancer, marking the end of an era of Apache resistance.

1860s Fashion

• In the 1860s, the hoop skirt created a voluminous silhouette, emphasizing a smaller waist and structured fashion.
• Only the wealthy could afford these extravagant fashions, keeping trends exclusive to the upper class.
• Women wore vibrant colors and fur-lined overcoats during winter to symbolize luxury and warmth.
• Sleeves grew wider, while necklines varied, with high collars for day and lower cuts for evening wear.

1860s Fashion

• Women's outfits included multiple layers of undergarments, shaping the figure and supporting the outer dress.
• A loose petticoat was worn under the dress, creating a smooth base beneath the skirt.
• A tightly laced corset defined the waist and accentuated the hourglass silhouette.
• Men wore dark three-piece suits, including a collar, vest, and overcoat, reflecting formality.

1860s Fashion

• Younger men experimented with brighter colors, while older men stuck to muted tones.
• Men had specific attire for different occasions, highlighting the importance of dressing appropriately.
• Hats were essential accessories, often made from straw or horsehair, practical and decorative.
• Men's hats had bell-shaped designs with curved brims, complementing their tailored suits.
• Children's hats were simple, adorned with bows or small flowers, matching their outfits and innocence.

Ex Parte Merryman�(1861 CE)

• Ex parte Merryman (1861) tested President Lincoln's authority to suspend habeas corpus during wartime, raising questions about the balance of powers between the executive and judiciary.
• Lincoln suspended habeas corpus, challenging whether the executive could override judicial orders to preserve legal authority.
• On May 28, 1861, Chief Justice Taney ruled on the case, questioning the constitutional limits of presidential power while acting as a circuit judge.
• The case centered on Article 1, Section 9 of the Constitution, allowing habeas corpus suspension during rebellion or invasion, which Lincoln invoked in the Civil War context.

Ex Parte Merryman�(1861 CE)

• Habeas corpus, originating from the Magna Carta of 1215, protects against unlawful detention by requiring government justification before a judge.
• Lincoln suspended habeas corpus on key railroad routes due to a Maryland rebellion threatening Washington in 1861.
• John Merryman, a Maryland planter suspected of secession, was arrested without a warrant and detained at Fort McHenry, triggering the case.
• Merryman's attorney petitioned Taney for a writ of habeas corpus to challenge the detention.

Ex Parte Merryman�(1861 CE)

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• On May 26, 1861, Taney issued a writ, but the Fort McHenry commander ignored it, citing Lincoln's authorization for suspension.
• Taney declared the commander in contempt, but military forces prevented enforcement of the ruling.
• Taney ruled that only Congress had the power to suspend habeas corpus but couldn't enforce the writ due to military defiance.
• Lincoln responded indirectly by delivering a speech on July 4, 1861, justifying the suspension of laws to preserve the Union.
• Lincoln continued suspending habeas corpus, and in March 1863, Congress granted him authority to suspend it during the Civil War.

The Homestead Act�(1862 CE)

• The Homestead Acts allowed individuals to claim government land, distributing over 160 million acres (10% of U.S. territory) to 1.6 million homesteaders.
• Most homesteads were west of the Mississippi, promoting settlement and expansion and influenced by the Free Soil policy, which supported free white farmers.
• The 1862 Homestead Act offered land to any adult who hadn't opposed the U.S. government, including women and immigrants.
• The "yeoman farmer" ideal, rooted in Jeffersonian democracy, influenced many to see the Homestead Act as a way to foster independent farmers in the West.

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The Homestead Act�(1862 CE)

• Southern Democrats opposed earlier homestead proposals, fearing the land would attract immigrants and poor whites, threatening their slavery-based economy.
• The Republican and Free Soil Parties supported the Act to ensure land went to free farmers, not Southern planters using enslaved labor.
• President Lincoln signed the 1862 Homestead Act on May 20, 1862, and it became effective on January 1, 1863, after Southern states seceded.
• The 1862 Act expanded eligibility, including military veterans and excluding those who opposed the U.S. government.

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The Homestead Act�(1862 CE)

• It built on the Preemption Act of 1841, allowing settlers to claim 160 acres at $1.25 per acre and expand to adjacent land for personal use.
• Homesteaders had to live on and cultivate the land for five years to claim full ownership, and abandonment was punishable.
• After five years, homesteaders needed neighbor affidavits to prove cultivation and loyalty, plus an $8 fee for ownership certification.
• Ambiguous language in the Act led to fraud and exploitation, with speculators, miners, and railroad companies acquiring land instead of farmers.
• Despite distributing millions, only 80 million of the 500 million acres allocated from 1862 to 1904 went to homesteaders.

Sioux Uprising�(1862 CE)

• The Dakota War of 1862 was an armed conflict between the U.S. and the eastern Dakota (Santee Sioux), beginning on August 18 at the Lower Sioux Agency in southwest Minnesota.
• The eastern Dakota had lost vast lands through treaties in 1837, 1851, and 1858, which promised compensation but fell short.
• After these treaties, the Dakota were forced onto a reservation along the Minnesota River and pressured to adopt farming over traditional hunting.
• The settler population in Minnesota grew from 6,077 in 1850 to 172,072 by 1860, heightening tensions after Minnesota became a state in 1858.

Sioux Uprising�(1862 CE)

• An 1861 crop failure, harsh winter, and poor hunting left the Dakota starving and struggling.
• By 1862, frustration grew as U.S. agents failed to deliver annuity payments, and traders refused credit due to fears of non-payment during the Civil War.
• On August 17, 1862, four Dakota men killed five white settlers in Acton, triggering an attack on the Lower Sioux Agency and escalating violence.
• Chief Little Crow led Dakota warriors who killed hundreds of settlers, captured women and children, and forced many settlers to flee.

Sioux Uprising�(1862 CE)

• A volunteer army led by Colonel Henry Sibley defeated Little Crow at the Battle of Wood Lake on September 23, 1862.
• The war ended with 358 settlers, 77 soldiers, and 29 militia killed, while the number of Dakota deaths is unclear. Two hundred sixty-nine captives were freed at Camp Release on September 26.
• About 2,000 Dakota, including non-combatants, surrendered or were captured. Little Crow and a few followers escaped.
• A military commission sentenced 303 Dakota men to death, but President Lincoln approved 39 executions. On December 26, 1862, 38 were hanged in Mankato, Minnesota, in the largest mass execution in U.S. history.

WORK CITED