3 of 40

Law Enforcement: �Role and Responsibility

Status quo maintainers
Moral censors
Custodians of the public conscience

(these three components extract a heavy� cost)

Enforcers of state wishes

Crime prevention would historically not be on

this list, but it is becoming a component of 21^st

century policing in America.

4 of 40

American Law Enforcement, �by the numbers

765,000 sworn officers
400,000 PSO
18,000 public agencies; spend $100 B/year

17,900 state, county and city agencies
70 federal agencies

4,000 private security firms; spend $60 B/year

5 of 40

Law Enforcement Role

Wide range of debate as to the proper role of law enforcement in the community:

Classic law enforcement (proactive v. reactive)
Crime prevention�Order maintenance (micro and macro)
Social service providers

6 of 40

Law Enforcement Community

Local:

City police
City attorney
Regulatory agencies

County:

Sheriff
County/District Attorney
Regulatory agencies

7 of 40

Law Enforcement Community…continued

State:

State Police/State Patrol
Fish and Game Wardens
Correctional officials (probation, parole, pen)
Attorney General
Regulatory Agencies

8 of 40

Law Enforcement Community…continued

Federal (70 agencies)

Department of the Treasury:

Internal Revenue Service
Comptroller of the Currency

Department of Justice:

Federal Bureau of Investigation
U.S. Marshal Service
Drug Enforcement Administration
Federal Bureau of Prisons
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

9 of 40

Law Enforcement Community…continued

Department of Homeland Security:

Secret Service
Customs and Border Protection
Citizenship and Immigration Service
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Coast Guard
Transportation and Security Administration (TSA)
Air Marshals
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

10 of 40

Law Enforcement Community…continued

Miscellaneous Federal Agencies:

Postal Inspectors
National Park Service Officers
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Federal Probation Officers
Supreme Court Police
U.S. Capital Police
U.S. Park Police
National Art Gallery Police
U.S. Park Police

11 of 40

Law Enforcement Community…continued

Federal Prosecutors
Federal Regulatory Agencies:

FDA
SEC
EPA
FAA
OSHA
FDIC

12 of 40

International Law Enforcement

Interpol (est. 1923)

- 194 countries; 760 staff; $130 M annual budget

- based in Lyon, France

Europol (est. 1992/operations began 1998)

- 27 EU countries plus agreements with 25 additional� countries and professional entities (ie., Interpol, UNODC)

- 1,100 staff; $130 M annual budget

- based in The Hague (Netherlands)

United Nations???

13 of 40

Private Security

$60 Billion/year; 2 million employees in multiple settings:

Campus police at private schools
Retail (shoplifiting/employee theft)
Plant security
Corporate security (this is huge)
Private investigation firms (4,000 of them)
Private military contractors
Bounty hunters/bail bond skip tracers

14 of 40

Problems with our fragmented, decentralized law enforcement network

Limited coordination
Limited cooperation
Turf battles
Service duplication
Crime displacement
Inconsistent crime responses

15 of 40

History of American Policing

Our English heritage:

Hue and Cry
Shire Reeves
Thief Takers
Bow Street runners
Thames River police

Peterloo Massacre of 1819�Metropolitan Police Act of 1829

16 of 40

Metropolitan Police Act of 1829

The Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel learned from the past. They built the Metro Police Act on hundreds of years of experience:

* Social service orientation (Hue and Cry)

* Trained professionals (Thames River Police)

* Paid by the State (Bow Street Runners)

* Centrally organized (Thames River Police, Bow Street Runners)

* No weapons (Bow Street runners)

* Life and work in same beat (Hue and Cry, Shire Reeves)

* Screen/background checks (Thames River Police)

Police in UK still called Bobbies, after Sir Robert Peel

17 of 40

History of American Policing

* First police force:

Boston, 1838 (but is disbanded)
New York City, 1844/1845

* Law Enforcement a post-Civil War phenomenon

* August Vollmer – Father of professional law� enforcement in America

* Great Depression turns national attention to the� need for improved/more professional law� enforcement

18 of 40

Wickersham Commission (1931)

Get the police out of politics
Move the police into more of a kinetic, law enforcement orientation (crime control)
Train the police
Screen applicants

19 of 40

Presidential Crime Commission (1967)

Re-affirmed three points of the Wickersham Commission report:

* Get the police out of politics

* Train the police

* Screen applicants

Added an education and research component

Rejected the kinetic, law enforcer model for a social service/due process orientation

Result - a far more professionalized, research-oriented law enforcement

20 of 40

Public Perception of Police

What do we want to the police to do?

Tremendous differences across demographic lines:

Gender differences
Racial differences
Age differences
Social class differences

21 of 40

Public Perception of Police

Most positive image of the police is held by:

White
Middle-aged (50+ year of age)
Females
College Graduates
Married
White collar job
Husband has a white collar job
Good income
Lives in a good neighborhood
No police initiated contact

22 of 40

Public Perception of Police…continued

Most negative image of the police is held by:

Non-white
Young (under 20 years of age)
Male
Grade school educated
Single
Manual laborer, if employed
Lower income
Lives in a poor neighborhood
Some, but not extensive police initiated contact

23 of 40

Chang and Zastrow study

Police tend to view the population in a negative light. In their study,

Chang and Zastrow asked police who deserves our highest admiration:

1 - me (the person filling out the questionnaire)

2 - police officers

3 - medical doctors

4 - prison security officers

5 - scientists

6 - women

7 - people

8 - businessmen

9 - lawyers

10 - college students

11 - politicians

12 - inmates

24 of 40

Factors Influencing Police �Decision Making

Characteristics of the citizen

Behavioral
Demographic

Legal Characteristics of the problem
Characteristics of the local legal culture

Police department
Local justice system actors

Characteristics of officers

Officers as a group
Officers as individuals

Corruption (money and power)

25 of 40

Four Aspects of Policing

Patrolling
Specific Services
Staff Support
Custodial Facilities/Jails

26 of 40

Four Aspects of Policing…Patrolling

* Time assignment logistics (cover 24 hrs/day,� peak activity, court duty, vacations, sick leave)

* Transport methods (cars, foot patrol, horses,

motorcycles, bicycles, helicopters, drones,� boats, jeeps, snowmobiles, planes, scuba)

* Response Time

- Citizen to police contact time delay�- Processing time delay�- Police travel time delay (Codes 0, 1, 2, 3)

27 of 40

Patrolling…continued

Patrol Assignments

* Orientation

- Preventative patrol

- Aggressive patrol

* Distribution

- Vacate an area

- Saturate an area

28 of 40

Community Policing Evolution

Kansas City Study

Wilson response (saturation and aggressive)

Cordner response (saturation and social service)

Community Policing

CAPS project in Chicago

Problem Solving Policing

Community Partnership Policing

29 of 40

Police Role

The police role in the 21^st century is to be a part of a community team that seeks to improve the quality of neighborhood life in every context, crime being just one measure of that effort.

30 of 40

Four Aspects of Policing…continued

* Special Services (investigators/detectives,� undercover operatives, internal affairs, PSO,� pilots, SWAT, forensic/crime scene specialists)

* Staff Services (communications/dispatchers,� crime lab techs, central filing staff, property� room management, automobile pound, auto� mechanics, management)

* Custodial Facilities (largest part of Sheriff’s� budgets)

31 of 40

Contemporary Policing Issues

*Gender Gap – women make up roughly 15% of our police forces and few rise to the highest ranks; gender is not a BFOQ.

*Language Skills – language skills are sorely needed as America becomes more diversified; NYC officers in aggregate speak more than 100 languages; hire PSOs from all ethnic neighborhoods to serve as communal liaisons.

32 of 40

Contemporary Policing Issues…continued

*Blue Curtain Phenomenon – only fellow officers can relate and understand and be trusted

*Master Status – reduction in the breadth of the personality

Both need to be diminished/overcome/abolished, particularly as we move toward a problem solving/community partnership policing model

33 of 40

Neiderhoffer’s Cynicism Model

Professional

Failure

Frustration

Recommit Disenchantment

Cynicism

Anomie Quit

Corrupt

34 of 40

Neiderhoffer…continued

Education
Training
Union involvement
Democratic leadership
Selflessness
Change the people vs. change the program

35 of 40

Future of Policing

Proactive Social Service/Problem Solving Orientation
Citizen Involvement
Foot Patrol
Bicycle Patrol
Permanent Beat Assignments
4/10 personnel deployment
Greater use of civil sanctions
Greater use of creative sting operations

36 of 40

Future of Policing…continued

Electronic surveillance

Street cameras (ala CCTV in the UK)
Public transportation (buses/trains)
Traffic light motion detectors
Traffic photo-cops
Open microphones on officers
Body cameras on officers
Cameras in all police vehicles
Drones

37 of 40

Future of Policing…continued

Consolidation of rural departments
Prosecutor/police cooperation
Community Public Relations programs/Officer� Friendly
More creative computer applications:

Fingerprints
Data management tool
Personnel deployment (time and location)
Probability and solvability modeling

38 of 40

Future of Policing…continued

Weaponry issues (control the scene vs. inflict permanent harm):

Electronic weaponry (taser, stun guns, bullets)�Tear gas�Rubber bullets, pepper bullets
Robo cops and drones

311 and 911 phone options

Differentiated Police Response systems

Forensics

“Hot Spots” policing

39 of 40

Future of Policing…continued

Enhanced public police – private security cooperation
Increase interaction with other involved and active communal awareness agents

Probation and parole officers
Social welfare agents
Real estate agents
Insurance agents
Meter readers
Taxi drivers (information, transport prisoners)

40 of 40

Future of Policing…continued

Outreach programs focused on immigrant and minority communities/neighborhoods:

Officers learn languages
Translate brochures
Translate for them in court, in hospitals
Develop bi-lingual newsletters
Officers serve on their community boards
Invite them to serve on police committees/citizen advisory boards
Hire them as officers and as PSOs
Generally build communal bridges