9990 PSYCHOLOGY
Syllabus Notes
3.1.2- Research methods
RESEARCH METHODS ARE ESSENTIAL TOOLS THAT PSYCHOLOGISTS CAN USE TO HELP US UNDERSTAND HUMAN AND ANIMAL BEHVAIOUR.
EXPERIMENTS
Looks for a causal relationship
Lab experiment
MAIN FEATURES:
- Unnatural and highly controlled environment- IV manipulated by researcher – Standardised procedures – Highly scientific
STRENGTHS:
- Cause and effect relationship established (sure that IV is affecting DV)
- High internal validity (Confounding variables controlled)
-High reliability (as standardisation and controls allow replication)
WEAKNESSES:
- Poor ecological validity (type of external validity; results not representative of real-world situations)
-Low mundane realism
-High demand characteristics and social desirability bias (may affect validity)
field experiment
MAIN FEATURES:
- Natural environment – IV manipulated by researcher –Slight control over variables
STRENGTHS:
- High in ecological validity (findings representative of normal settings)
- Fewer demand characteristics and no social desirability bias if covert (can improve internal validity)
- High mundane realism
WEAKNESSES:
- Poor reliability (controls and standardisation not possible, so difficult to replicate)
- Internal validity can suffer due to uncontrolled, extraneous variables
- If covert, unethical (lack of consent, invasion of privacy)
NATURAL experiment
MAIN FEATURES:
- Natural environment – IV NOT directly manipulated by researcher, happens naturally by chance –No control over variables
STRENGTHS:
- High validity and representativeness as no interference by researcher in natural setting
- Allows studies that could never be conducted in a lab due to ethical reasons to be conducted
- No effect of demand characteristics
WEAKNESSES:
- Poor reliability (controls and standardisation not possible, so difficult to replicate)
- Confounding variables make it difficult to establish causal relationship
SELF REPORTS: QUESTIONAIRRES
Research method that involves asking non-verbal questions on pencil and paper or online
Usually asking closed questions
Main features of questionnaires
- Paper and pencil OR Online (technique)
- Uses open and closed questions (mainly closed)
- Can use filler questions- not analysed in the research since they serve to only hide the real purpose of the study
OPEN QUESTIONS
+ Validity
+ Allows reasons behind behaviours and emotions to be known
- Difficult to analyse and draw patterns (subjectivity and practicality)
- Lower response rates
Participants give descriptive and detailed answers in their own words, producing qualitative data
CLOSED QUESTIONS
+ Increase response rates
+ Quantifiable; allow drawing patterns and trends/ easier to analyse
- Less valid
- Acquiesce bias
Questions that have a fixed set of possible responses (e.g yes/no questions, rating scales, Likert scales, etc.), producing quantitative data
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUESTIONAIRRES
Easy to analyse and draw patterns
Cheap
Can be distributed to a large population despite geographical boundaries
Reliability (if closed questions)
Low response/return rate
Generalisability; are all the people who responded similar?
Poor validity – participants may lie
Social desirability bias
Inter-rater reliability (if open questions)
Confusions or doubts with regards to the questions cannot be clarified
SELF REPORTS: INTERVIEWS
Research method that involves asking verbal questions directly,
Usually asking open questions
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
STRUCTURED:
Has a rigid schedule of questions- standardisation by asking same questions in same order, same tone of voice, and same wording.
UNSTRUCTURED:
Questions depend on the respondent’s responses; flexible, chatty, and rather informal
SEMI-STRUCTURED:
Uses a fixed list of open and closed questions but interviewer has freedom to add more questions if necessary
Techniques: Face to face or telephonic
EVALUATION
STRUCTURED
+ Reliable (standardisation allows replication)
- Low validity as no follow up questions permitted
-Social desirability bias
UNSTRUCTURED
+ Follow-up questions allow more detail and clarify meaning, increasing validity
- Not very reliable
- Interviewer effect more prone (leading questions, subjective interpretation)
- Time consuming (restricts the type and number of participants)
- Can go off topic
- Social desirability bias
Case study
A detailed investigation of a single participant or unit
i.e one person/group/event
TRIANGULATION
Features of a case study
- Highly detailed
- Uses triangulation (different research methods and different sources of evidence)
- Usually used to study rare or exceptional situations
- Collects qualitative and quantitative data
- Can be a snapshot case study or a longitudinal case study
EVALUATION OF CASE STUDIES
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
OBSERVATIONS
A non-experimental technique where the researcher watches and records the naturalistic/ spontaneous behaviour of participants without manipulating the levels of the IV
NATURALISTIC VS. CONTROLLED OBSERVATIONS
+ Ecological (external) validity
+True to life
- No control over extraneous variables
+ Standardisation can be achieved
+ Extraneous variables eliminated
- Artificial setting; demand characteristics, no guarantee will also occur in a natural setting
Overt vs. covert observation
Role of researcher obvious
+ Ethical
- Demand characteristics
- Social desirability bias
Role of researcher not obvious (may be hidden or in disguise)
+ Validity
- Unethical
Participant vs. non-participant observation
Researcher watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting
+ Rapport and validity (first hand data)
- Subjectivity and researcher bias (going native)
Researcher not involved in the situation being studied
+ Maintains objectivity
- May miss out of details of the event as no rapport is established
Unstructured and structured observations
Observer records the whole range of possible behaviours; usually confined to a pilot stage at the beginning of the study to refine the behavioural categories to be observed
+ More flexibility to record unexpected behaviours (no need to repeat experiment if something initially missed out)
-Large volume of irrelevant data
Observer records only a limited range of behaviours; behavioural categories operationalised
+ Concise information, only relevant data
+ Operationalisation improves reliability
- May miss relevant behaviours that are not part of the behavioural categories
INTER OBSERVER RELIABILITY
May be double blind to increase objectivity
Test of correlation conducted (Result of 0.8 or stronger accepted)
CORRELATIONS
An analysis technique used to establish a link between two co-variables (measured variables)
MAIN FEATURES OF A CORRELATION
- A correlation analysis can be useful in situations where it is unethical or impractical to manipulate a variable.
- Acts as a starting point, suggesting whether or not it is worth studying further with experimental methods
- Both variables should be in the form of continuous and measurable/numerical data
- NOT A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP AS IN AN EXPERIMENT (extraneous variables haven’t been controlled)
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CORRELATION
POSITIVE CORRELATION- Both variables increase together; change is in the same direction
NEGATIVE CORRELATION- As one variable increases, the other decreases; change in opposite directions
The correlational study’s hypothesis must operationalise both co-variables, without saying that a change in one variable causes a change in the other.
DISPLAYING THE DATA
- The two co-variables are usually represented visually in the form of a scatter graph (the x and y variables are interchangeable)
A correlation coefficient is then calculated to determine the strength of the correlation
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
+ Useful starting point for research
+ Correlation coefficient is a useful tool in describing the direction and strength between two factors
+ Helpful when impractical or unethical to manipulate IV
- Cannot prove a causal relationship; extraneous variables are not being controlled
Longitudinal studies
MAIN FEATURES
- Follows a group of participants over time
- Looks at changes in variables to explore development or changes due to experiences, such as interventions, drugs, or therapies
- Single cohort
- May or may not have an IV and DV (longitudinal design in experiments- quasi or otherwise)
If it is a longitudinal study with an experimental design, the conditions will be : before, after, follow-up (when IV manipulated)
STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS
+ Eliminates participant variables
+ Eliminates extraneous variables like time period in which participants were brought up, societal expectations, etc.
- Sample attrition
- Unrepresentative as final sample shares characteristics of willingness, motivated, healthy, law-abiding individuals
- Lack of standardisation (researchers may change)
- Invasion of privacy
- Subjectivity and researcher bias
- Practice effect
- Confidentiality
- Expensive
HYPOTHESIS
a testable statement predicting the outcomes of a study
THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND WHILE WRITING A HYPOTHESIS
Types of hypothesis
1. NON- DIRECTIONAL (TWO-TAILED) HYPOTHESIS
Predicts that there will be an effect, but not the direction of the effect
2. DIRECTIONAL (ONE-TAILED) HYPOTHESIS
Predicts the direction of a relationship between two variables
3. NULL HYPOTHESIS
There is no relationship between the 2 variables. Any difference found is due to chance.
Alternative to the alternative hypotheses
WRITING AN AIM
A single statement that describes the purpose or reason of conducting the experiment. Should be brief and concise.
AIM = WHAT ARE WE STUDYING? �HYPOTHESIS = HOW ARE WE STUDYING IT?
Proves�evidence supports the theory that_____
There is always a 5% chance results were attained by fluke
VARIABLES
Definitions
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE- The factor under investigation in an experiment that is manipulated to create 2 or more conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable
DEPENDENT VARIABLE- The factor in an experiment that is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the independent variable
OPERATIONALISATION
Turning abstract concepts to measurable ones!
Experimental design
Independent measures design
- DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PARTICIPANTS ARE USED FOR EACH LEVEL OF THE IV (they are randomly allocated to prevent researcher bias)
Data produced is independent/ unrelated
+ Fewer demand characteristics
+ No order effects
- Participant variables influence validity
- More participants required
REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
- EACH PARTICIPANT PERFORMS IN EVERY LEVEL OF THE IV
Each person acts as their own baseline, producing related data
+Reduces effects of participant variables
- Too many demand characteristics
- Order effects: practice effect, fatigue effect
RANDOMISATION
ATTEMPT TO REDUCE ORDER EFFECTS IN A REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
Each participant is allocated to perform in the different levels of the IV in a way that ensures they have an equal chance of participating in the different levels in any order
COUNTERBALANCING
ATTEMPT TO REDUCE ORDER EFFECTS IN A REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
ABBA DESIGN; each possible order of the levels of the IV is performed by a different sub-group of participants
MATCHED PAIRS DESIGN
-PARTICIPANTS ARE ARRANGED INTO PAIRS. EACH PAIR IS SIMILAR IN WAYS THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO THE STUDY AND ONE MEMBER OF EACH PAIR PERFORMS IN A DIFFERENT LEVEL OF THE IV.
+ Few demand characteristics
+ Minimises the participant variable
+ No order effects
- Difficult to find participants
- Time consuming
CONTROL OF VARIABLES
Standardisation = same between participants �controls= same between iv conditions
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES= A factor apart from the iv affecting the dv. Random or systematically.
Can be controlled using random allocation or matched pairs design
Controlled using standardisation
3. Order effects
Controlled using counter-balancing
4. Demand characteristics
Controlled by single and double-blind trials and using standardised scripts
KEY POINTS
- Control of variables is important to improve validity
- Confounding variables work systematically to either counteract the IV’s effect on the DV or increase the apparent effect of the IV on the DV
- A pilot study can help identify uncontrolled variables
SITUATIONAL VARIABLE
A confounding variable that is an aspect of the environment
participant VARIABLE
A confounding variable that has been caused by a feature of the individuals
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
A control condition is a condition of the IV in which the IV itself is absent. It is compared to one or more experimental groups.
SAMPLING
KEY POINTS
Population: group of people (or animals) sharing one or more characteristics in common
Sample: the group of people selected to represent the population in a study
- the sample must be representative of the population in order for the results to be generalisable
- smaller samples tend to be less reliable and less representative
Opportunity sampling
+ Easy and quick
+ Large samples
- Researcher bias
- Not representative
Participants are chosen because they are available at the time of research
Suitable for research wherein factors common amongst the sample (e.g age and level of education in university students) is unproblematic.
VOLUNTEER (SELF-SELECTED SAMPLE)
+ Easy to collect participants
+ Useful when looking for participants who are unusual in some way (have an uncommon characteristic)
- Unrepresentative
- Volunteer bias
Participants are invited to participate, for example through advertisements via email or notices. Those who reply become the sample
RANDOM SAMPLING
+ Representative (if small sample and not stratified, this cannot be ensured)
+ Unbiased
- Time consuming
- Difficult to get a sampling frame/ population list
- In reality, everyone may not be equally likely to be chosen (if they are not available or the list is incomplete, for example)
- There may be a bias in the creation of strata
When everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample
Participants are chosen in an unbiased way e.g. picking names from a hat
Could be stratified random sampling
MOST SAMPLES TEND TO BE W.E.I.R.D
TYPES OF DATA
2 TYPES OF DATA
QUANTITATIVE DATA: numerical results about the amount or quantity of a psychological measure, such as pulse rate or a score on an intelligence test (OBJECTIVE DATA)
QUALITATIVE DATA: descriptive, in-depth results indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic, such as responses to open questions in self-reports or case studies and detailed observations (SUBJECTIVE DATA)
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ADVANATGES
Easy to compare using measures of central tendency
Objective
Reliable
DISADVANTAGES
May be invalid (if participant wants to give a response not mentioned already)
Qualitative data
ADVANTAGES
Highly valid
Important but unusual responses not ignored due to averages
DISADVANTAGES
Not representative or generalisable to wider majority
Not reliable
Subjectivity/ bias
Validity
Internal validity
CAUSALITY- IS THE IV REALLY CAUSING A CHANGE IN THE DV?
Affected by:
- Social desirability bias- peer review
- Demand characteristics; single- and double-blind trials
- Uncontrolled/ confounding variables (participant, situational, order effects): random allocation, randomisation/counterbalancing
- Investigators’ effects and subjectivity – standard procedures
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
Whether or not the results are applicable to real world situations
- ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
- MUNDANE REALISM
-POPULATION VALIDITY (GENERALISIABILITY)
- TEMPORAL VALIDITY
Solution 🡪 REPLICATION!!!
WAYS TO ASSESS VALDITY:
Is it really measuring what it claims to measure?
2. Criterion Validity
Are the results concurrent with previous tests or predictive of future performance?
Reliability
Consistency in results
Types: inter-rater/observer reliability; test-retest reliability;
INTERNAL RELIABILITY
Consistency between results within the same experiment
To test: Split half method
EXTERNAL RELIABILITY
Consistency of results when same experiment is repeated with same participants by a different researcher at a different time.
TO TEST: Test- Retest method; Inter-rater reliability//Inter-observer reliability; Test of correlation (e.g Pearson’s R)
IMPROVING RELIABILITY
- Use well-operationalised variables
- Standardisation of procedure
- Use closed questions and structured interviews
- Use automated machines where possible
REPLICABILITY
The extent to which the procedure of a study can be kept the same whenever the study is repeated. This is especially important when a study is repeated wither by the same or different researchers to verify results.
It also allows researchers conducting other studies to follow exactly the same procedures to test different aspects of the same problem, different participant groups, etc.
Data analysis
ETHICS
Problems relating to welfare of participants
or have a wider negative impact on society.
With human participants:
Minimising harm and maximising BENEfit:
The benefit gained from the study should override any harm caused
All participants have the right to be protected from psychological harm (embarrassment, self-doubt, and stress) or physical harm (risky behaviours or receiving injections)
Participants should not be exposed to any greater risk than they would be exposed to in their normal life.
Precautions must be taken- screening participants; experienced researchers
🡪 Should leave study in same condition as in which they arrived.
VALID CONSENT
- Difficult as revealing aims increases demand characteristics
- Consent must be informed (can be informed of procedure and risks without revealing the aim fully)
- Should be freely given by a competent individual
- Participants should not feel pressured to participate
- Working with children: ask parents + the child in a ‘child-friendly’ way
- PRESUMPTIVE CONSENT
- DEBRIEFING
RIGHT TO WITHDRAW
Participants should be able to leave a study whenever they wish.
They must be informed of this right and reminded whenever necessary.
Any incentives offered cannot be taken away if they choose to withdraw.
Researchers should not use their position of authority to encourage them to remain in the study; this ethical guidelines overrules the need for data.
LACK OF DECEPTION
Participants should not be deliberately misinformed.
If absolutely required, they should be told the real aim as soon as possible and be allowed to remove their results if they want to.
If deceived, a debriefing should follow.
Confidentiality
If data must be stored, it should be stored separately from the participants’ names and personal information- perhaps, by allocating an identification number to each participant.
Names should never be published, unless consent is given. Try using initials instead
privacy
In a questionnaire, interview, or case study, participants should be aware of their right to ignore questions they do not want to answer.
In answering a questionnaire in a laboratory, participants should be given an individual space.
In an observation, they must only be watched in situations where they would expect to be on public display.
DEBRIEFING
At the end of an experiment, thanking the participants and giving them the chance to ask questions.
They must be made aware of the full aims of the study and ensure that they do not want to withdraw their data.
If the participants were negatively affected, the researcher must return them to their previous condition.
With animal participants:
Used because they are: convenient models; a way to carry out procedures deemed unethical for humans; are interesting examples in their own right
Minimizing harm and maximising benefit
The benefit gained from the study should override any harm caused to animals.
REPLACEMENT
Animals should be replaced with videos or computer simulations, if possible.
SPECIES
Choose the species least likely to suffer pain or distress.
Were the animals bred in captivity?
Do they have previous experience of experimentation?
What is their sentience like?
Number of animals
Only the minimum number needed should be used.
To achieve this, pilot studies, reliable measures of the DV, good experimental design, and appropriate data analysis should be used.
Procedures: PAIN, SUFFERING, AND DISTRESS
Research causing death, or suffering, such as disease, pain, injury, physiological or psychological distress should be avoided.
If required for study, naturally occurring instances must be used.
Animals’ daily care and veterinary needs must be satisfied.
Procedures: housing
Isolation (especially to social species) and crowding can cause animals distress.
Animals should be housed with adequate space and sufficient food and water, recreating aspects of the natural environment where relevant.
Cage cleaning should be balanced against avoiding stress (E.g., caused by unfamiliar smells or disturbance by humans)
PROCEDURES: REWARD, DEPRIVATION, AND AVERSIVE STIMULI
If deprivation involved in a study, normal feeding and drinking patterns of the animals should be considered so that their needs can be satisfied.
The use of preferred food/rewards should be used as an alternative to deprivation and aversive (unpleasant) stimuli.
Biological approach
DEMENT AND KLEITMAN// HASSETT. ET AL // HOLZEL ET. AL
Dement and kleitman (sleep and dreams)
1957
The psychology being investigated:
+ ultradian rhythms
The background
The aim(s)
The procedure
Research methods used
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
SELF REPORTS (INTERVIEW)
CORRELATION
Sample size, techniques and demographics
Experimental design
REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN
- The same participants were sometimes woken up in REM and nRem SLEEP
IV//DV
IV- Stage of sleep
DV- Degree to which they remember their dream
Covariable 1- Subjective estimate of dream duration
Covariable 2- Time spent in REM sleep
CONTROLS
- Method of being woken up (doorbell)
- Sleep environment
- Interaction with researcher
ETHICAL ISSUES
- DECEPTION: WD told he would be woken up during periods of dreaming but was woken up randomly
- HARM/ DISTRESS: Woken up from sleep/ alterations to lifestyle (no drinking caffeine)
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
Real life application
NATURE/ NURTURE DEBATE
HASSETT. ET AL (Monkey toy preferences)
2008
THE PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED
- Socialisation processes, parents, or peers encouraging play with gender-specific toys are thought to be the primary force shaping sex differences in toy preference.
- Contrasting view: toy preferences reflect biologically determined preferences for specific activities facilitated by specific toys- the role of hormones.
- Sex differences in juvenile activities, such as rough and tumble play, peer preferences, and infant interest share similarities in humans and monkeys.
The background
- Prenatal hormone exposure influences children’s toy preferences: girls with CAH (Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia) show a greater preference for masculine toys than their unaffected siblings despite greater socialization to feminine toys. (role of prenatal hormone exposure)
THE AIM
- To investigate if sex differences in children’s toy preferences result from biological factors- for example, from prenatal hormone exposure rather than through socialization.
- To investigate if male and female rhesus monkeys exhibit similar toy preferences to human infants despite no socialisation experience with human toys.
procedure
DETAILS OF PROCEDURE
7 plush toys used (e.g. Scooby Doo, Winnie the Pooh, Koala bear, Teddy bear) 14-73 cm long.
6 wheeled toys used (e.g. Shopping cart, Truck, Wagon) 16-46 cm long.
The behavioural checklist included actions like- extended touch (placing a hand or foot on toy), carrying, holding, sniffing, sitting on, etc.
Research methods used
CONTROLLED, COVERT, NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
FIELD EXPERIMENT
Sample size, techniques and demographics
34 Rhesus monkeys (23 females + 11 males)
Living within a 135-monkey troop
Opportunity Sampling – Yerkes Primate research station in USA.
Infants difficult to identify, adults previously received hormone treatment, and monkeys with less than 5 total behaviours were excluded
CONTROLS
- distance between the toys
- environment conducted in
ETHICAL ISSUES
No ethical issues:
RESULTS
CONCLUSION
Human toy preferences- as with monkeys- reflect hormonally influenced behavioural and cognitive biases.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
+ Reliability (standardisation, operationalisation)
+ Ethics
+ Counterbalancing
+ Quantitative data
- Unrepresentative sample
- Potential observer bias due to familiarity with subjects
- Generalising to everyday life- ecological validity
Real life application
NATURE/ NURTURE DEBATE
This study supports nature. It describes the role of hormones in producing a behavioral and cognitive bias between the sexes, influencing their toy preference.
The role of nurture can be presented in terms of the role of social rank on their behaviour.
HOLZEL ET. AL (MINDFULNESS AND BRAIN SCANS)
2011
THE PSYCHOLOGY BEING INVESTIGATED
- Mindfulness is a state achieved through meditation that aims to improve one’s awareness of present-moment experiences with a compassionate, non-judgemental stance.
- The localization of this function of mindfulness is also being investigated; that is, it is attempted to investigate which brain structure is particularly targeted by mindfulness practices.
- Mindfulness is said to increase regional grey matter density in the hippocampus which is responsible for memory, navigation, controlling emotion, arousal, and responsiveness. Such brain regions demonstrate neuroplasticity.
The background
-> The MBSR course is a scientifically proven course designed to reduce stress in participants. It involves 3 main exercises: 1. Full body scan 2. Sitting meditation 3. Mindfulness Yoga
-> The FFMQ is a questionnaire designed to measure changes in mindfulness in the following aspects: 1. Observing 2. Describing 3. Acting with awareness 4. Non-judgement of inner experiences 5. Non-reaction to inner experiences.
-> Voxel-based morphometry can be used to study grey matter concentrations in different regions of the brain in detail.
THE AIM
procedure
* Voxel-based morphometry was used to analyse changes in grey matter concentration.
DETAILS OF INTERVENTION
- The FFMQ used a Likert scale. 1= never or very rarely true 5= always or very often true.
The total score for each of the 5 subscales is added up (each subscale had 7-8 statements) . Some of the scales were reverse scored.
Regions of Interest Analyses (ROI) – Bilateral hippocampi and bilateral insulae
Exploratory Analyses of whole brain.
14 participants from both groups provided usable data on both occasions.
Research methods used
MRI Scans
Self-report: questionnaire
Correlation
Sample size, techniques and demographics
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP-
6 males + 10 females enrolled in either of 4 MBSR courses at the Center for Mindfulness at the University of Massachusetts to reduce stress (self or physician-referred)
Must be:
- 25-55 years old (mean of 38 years old)
- physically and psychologically healthy
- taking no medications
- free of any contra-indications for MRI scanning (e.g. have metal in body or claustrophobia)
- not taken a meditation class in the past 6 months; no more than 4 classes in the past 5 years; no more than 10 in full life.
2 males left after first session due to discomfort in MRI scanning
CONTROL GROUP-
6 females + 11 males in the MBSR wait-list
* Participants reimbursed for participation with discounted MBSR fees. All participants were from a varied number of ethnicities and had an average of 17.7 years of educational background.
CONTROLS
- ethnicities (Caucasian + Asian + African American + multi-ethnic + Hispanic)
- same educational levels
- meditative experience
ETHICAL ISSUES
- Psychological distress or physical harm during MRI?
✓ Written informed consent taken
✓ Given right to withdraw
RESULTS
ROLES OF BRAIN STRUCTURES
- Hippocampus : Memory and Learning
- Temporo-parietal junction: Self-referential learning
- Posterior cingulate cortex: Plays a role in the way in which we judge the relevance of a stimuli to ourselves
- Cerebellum: emotion regulation
=> all these parts together with the prefrontal cortex form a network with many related functions involving considering alternative perspectives.
CONCLUSION
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
+ Objectivity
+ Application to real life
+ Elimination of participant variables
- Lack of standardisation
- Small sample
- Demand characteristics
Real life application
conditions like depression, anxiety, substance-abuse, chronic pain, etc.
Nature vs. nurture
SOCIAL APPROACH
PILIAVIN ET AL. // MILIGRAM // PERRY ET. AL
PILIAVIN ET. AL (SUBWAY SAMARITANS)
1969
The psychology being investigated:
The background
The aim(s)
The procedure
Research methods used
FIELD EXPERIMENT- 8TH AVENUE NEW YORK CITY INDEPENDENT SUBWAY
OBSERVATION TOOL
Sample size, techniques and demographics
Experimental design
INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN
“Different riders exposed to different conditions
IV//DV
CONTROLS
- Outfit of victim
- Stations between which trialed
- Behaviour of victim
- Helping behaviour of model
ETHICAL ISSUES
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Individual vs. situational explanation
MILIGRAM (OBEDIENCE)
1963
The psychology being investigated:
DESTRUCTIVE OBEDIENCE
The background
The aim(s)
The procedure
Research methods used
CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
INTERVIEW: OPEN AND CLOSED QUESTIONS
Sample size, techniques and demographics
CONTROLS
- PRODS GIVEN AND THE TONE THEY WERE GIVEN IN
- OUTFIT OF EXPERIMENTER
- LEARNER
- RESPONSES BY LEARNER
ETHICAL ISSUES
RESULTS
- Debriefing interview- mean score of 13.42/14 pain rating
- “I don’t think I can go on with this” + “I don’t think this is very humane” + “I’m going to chicken out”
- Signs of relief after it was over (wiping sweat, sigh of relief)
- Few remained calm during the procedure.
CONCLUSIONS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Individual vs. situational explanation
Approaches
PERRY ET. AL (Personal space)
2015
The psychology being investigated:
Interpersonal distance (personal space) is the relative distance between 2 people. Its preference can vary from one culture to another and is affected by various factors like the relationship between the 2 individuals. According to Hall (1996) there are 4 zones of interpersonal distance depending on the relationship between the 2 individuals: initimate space, personal space, social space, and public space.
Empathy is the way in which an individual reacts to the observed experience of another. It has 4 aspects: perspective taking, empathetic concern, personal distress, and fantasy abilities.
Oxytocin is a social hormone that can influence one’s personal space behaviour, perhaps enhancing their perceptual salience to social cues.
The background
The amygdala has been shown to play a role in preferred interpersonal distances; its activity is affected by the hormone oxytocin.
The social salience hypothesis states that OT alters the perceptual salience or processing of social cues; it has widely varying effects on down stream cognition and behaviour, depending on interpersonal context as well as how an individual perceives social settings and tends to react in different situations.
The interaction effect between various factors influencing interpersonal distance like interpersonal context.
The aim(s)
To investigate the differential effect of oxytocin on preferred interpersonal distance in relation to a person’s empathetic ability.
The procedure
Participants were invited to the laboratory twice- one week apart on the same day and at the same time.
They were randomly administered with Oxytocin or Saline solution (placebo) nasal drops: 3 drops in each nostril. This was self-administered in the presence of the researcher. It was double blind.
Participants were made to complete a 28-item Interpersonal Reactivity Index online questionnaire. (4 subscales)
Asked to wait in a quiet room with 3 nature magazines for 45 minutes.
The order of the 2 experiments was counterbalanced.
EXPERIMENT 1 – Approach avoidance context
CID: Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Paradigm (widely validated)
1.0 second- name of approaching figure (close friend/ authority figure (teacher or boss)/ stranger/ rolling ball)
0.5 seconds- fixation point
1.0 second- circular room with figure at the centre and an approaching figure at one of 8 entrances
3.0 seconds- animation of figure approaching centre of room
Participants were asked to imagine they were the figure at the centre of the room and to click the spacebar when they want the protagonist to stop. A total of 96 trials were conducted- 3 for each protagonist from each of the 8 doors.
EXPERIMENT 2 – intimacy context (ORIGINAL PARADIGM)
CHOOSING ROOMS
Each participant shown 84 pairs of very similar rooms and asked to pick which room they would rather have an intimate conversation with another participant in. They were told that the computer would design an average room based on their preferences and that room will be designed for the conversations.
The rooms differed in terms of
- distance and angle between 2 central chairs (20 to 140 cm) (0 deg, 45 deg, 90 deg)
- distance and angle between plant and table (200 to 320 cm) (0 deg, 45 deg, 90 deg)
in 20cm intervals; total of 21 combinations for each
All rooms had- 2 central chairs, a table on one side, a plant on the other side, a lamp, a closet, and a clock. (Google Sketchup Tools)
Participants debriefed- this experiment was never conducted
Research methods used
LAB EXPERIMENT
QUESTIONNAIRE (SELF REPORT)
Sample size, techniques and demographics
54 Males
19-32 years
Undergraduate students at the university of Haifa
Informed consent taken (written)
5 were left handed
Normal or corrected to normal vision
No history of psychiatric or neurological condition
In exchange for credit or payment
Experimental design
MIXED
IV//DV
IV s:
DV: Preference for interpersonal space
CONTROLS
- Gender of participants
- Empathy levels
- Room for oxytocin levels to plateau
- Time of administration (and day of week)
ETHICAL ISSUES
Participants were deceived about Experiment 2.
✓ Debriefed
✓ Written informed consent
RESULTS
EXPERIMENT 1:
- Participants in the high empathy group showed a decrease in preference for interpersonal distance following OT administration (Placebo: 26.11% VS. OT: 23.29%). Participants in the low empathy group showed a reverse effect (Placebo: 26.98% VS. OT: 30.20%). Interaction effect Empathy X Treatment
- Participants’ need for interpersonal distance increases the less well they know the approaching figure.
- With OT, people in the high empathy group showed an decrease in preferred distance between rolling ball relative to stranger and relative to authority figure (rolling ball may be an invitation to social interaction to which they have an enhanced salience to now) Empathy X Treatment X Condition
EXPERIMENT 2:
- Participants in the high empathy OT group showed a preference for closer chair distances compared to the placebo. The opposite effect was seen for the low empathy group. No significant preference for chair angle.
- No effect on plant and table (effect only in social, not general contexts)
- Moderate correlation between average distance chosen in experiment 1 under the placebo condition and distance between chairs in experiment 2.
CONCLUSIONS
The administration of OT leads to enhanced social cues in opposite ways for individuals with different empathetic abilities, supporting the social salience hypothesis.
People with a low empathetic ability respond to OT with a preference for increased interpersonal distance. People with a high empathetic ability respond to OT with a preference for decreased interpersonal distance.
People need less distance between themselves and others in a less threatening situation (e.g. when it’s a close friend or a rolling ball) than in a situation with high threat (e.g with a stranger)
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Perry et. al’s study can be used by psychologists working with patients with social disorders like ASD. They should not use the administration of oxytocin as a potential treatment as has been suggested by previous studies; Perry’s study proves that it will simply increase their social difficulties. Alternative methods should be considered.
Individual vs. situational explanation
Individual- personality- empathetic ability
Situational – social context (how threatening the situation is+ interpersonal context)
SOCIAL APPROACH
Behaviour, cognitions, and emotions can be influenced by other individuals and social contexts.
Preferred interpersonal distance is influenced by the interpersonal context and how threatening the situation is.
The cognitive approach
ANDRADE // BARON-COHEN // POZZULO ET. AL
ANDRADE (DOODLING)
2010
The psychology being investigated:
Doodling can aid a person’s attention and memory.
The background
The aim(s)
The procedure
Research methods used
- LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
- (Self reports)
Sample size, techniques and demographics
Experimental design
IV//DV
IV- Doodling/ Not doodling
DV- Score on monitoring task and incidental task
CONTROLS/STANDARDISATIONS
- Same, dull room
- Similar levels of boredom
- Same tape recording
- Comfortable volume of recording
- Same sheet of paper
- Same instructions given
- Script
- Length of conversation before recall
ETHICAL ISSUES
FINDINGS AND RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Strength and weakness
INDIVIDUAL VS. SITUATIONAL EXPLANATION
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
BARON-COHEN
2001
The psychology being investigated:
The background
The original version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test showed that participants with ASD correctly identified fewer emotions than participants in the non-ASD group. However, this test had several practical issues:
The aim(s)
1. To investigate if adults with HFA or AS scored lower on the revised eyes test to see if the deficits on the original test were still seen
2. To investigate if there is a negative correlation between scores on the AQ and RET test
3. To investigate if “normal” females perform better on the RET test than “normal” males
The procedure
Individually administered in a quiet room in Exeter or Cambridge.
Research methods used
- Laboratory experiment (quasi)
- Correlation
Sample size, techniques and demographics
Experimental design
- Independent measures design
QUASI EXPERIMENT
IV//DV
DV- Score on RET and AQ tests
CONTROLS/STANDARDISATIONS
CONTROL GROUP – Patients with Tourette’s syndrome (original test)
-Same sets of eyes shown to all.
- All eyes in black and white
- Same instructions given at the outset about glossary
- Environment in which it was conducted (quiet room in Cambridge or Exeter)
ETHICAL ISSUES
FINDINGS AND RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Strength and weakness
STRENGTHS:
WEAKNESSES:
INDIVIDUAL VS. SITUATIONAL EXPLANATION
INDIVIDUAL
Individual differences in the ability to identify mental states (and exhibit the Theory of Mind) was made quite evident by the results of the Eyes Test. The higher the degree of autism someone suffers from, the more impaired their ability to be socially sensitive.
Arguably, a situational explanation could be offered, suggesting that people with AS/HFA may score better in certain conditions, e.g. when basic emotions are used or they are allowed more time to process the emotion seen.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH
NATURE/NURTURE DEBATE
This study demonstrates the role of nature. A biological deficit (condition- autism) can lead to a lack of social sensitivity.
Pozzulo et. al (line ups)
2011
The psychology being investigated:
People who were present at the scene of an accident or crime are often questioned by the police about what they saw/heard/smelt. Such descriptions are called eyewitness testimonies and can also be provided by child witnesses. This study explored the factors that lead to children producing higher false-positive responses in target-absent lineups- that is, making an incorrect selection of an innocent person as the culprit rather than a non-selection.
The background
-Mistaken eyewitness identification has been found to be the leading cause of wrongful conviction.
-Under certain circumstances, children and adults are likely to have a lower accuracy with their eyewitness testimony.
- Children are more likely than adults to give a false positive response in a lineup than adults.
The aim(s)
The study aimed to explore the effects of social and cognitive factors on children’s identification of target faces in a lineup. Particularly, the study aimed to investigate if children:
- are less able to identify human faces than adults
- make more false positive responses than adults when posed with a
- target absent line up than a target present line up
- human and cartoon target faces
HYPOTHESES
THE PROCEDURE
DETAILS
- 6-second videos
- 2 to 3 second closeup of face
- In colour
- Muted (no audio)
- Female adult (22-year-old Caucasian actor) brushing her hair
- Male adult (22-year-old Caucasian actor) putting on his coat
- Dora the explorer talking to the audience
- Go Diego Go putting on gloves for safety
- The lineups showed the images in black and white. The faces of the cartoons were cropped so their outfit not seen. The human targets were photographed in different outfits.
- Cartoon foils picked by 3 raters reviewing around 10 images readily available on the internet.
- Human target faces picked by 3 raters from a pool of 90 female faces and 90 male faces based on general facial features, hair length and hair colour.
Research methods used
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
- Interviews
- Questionnaires
Sample size, techniques and demographics
- 59 children
- Between the ages of 4 and 7
- From pre-kindergarten or kindergarten classes of 3 private schools in Eastern Ontario, Canada
- 38 males and 21 females
- 53 adults
- Between the ages of 17 and 30 years
- Introductory Psychology participant pool from an Eastern Ontario University
- 36 females and 17 males
Experimental design
Within subjects design // Repeated measures design
IV//DV
IV- Age (Adults/ Young Children)
Lineup type (Target present/ Target absent)
Target (Human/ Cartoon)
DV- Rate of false positive responses
CONTROLS/STANDARDISATIONS
- Same videos shown
- Same lineup options
- Same instructions
- Same filler questions asked
Note: the inclusion of a target-present lineup was a control (to act as a baseline for comparison)
ETHICAL ISSUES
- Adults deceived
✓ Harm
✓ Informed consent
✓ Right to withdraw
FINDINGS AND RESULTS
- Children were better at identifying familiar cartoon faces (0.99) than human faces (0.23) in a target present lineup. Even adults are better at identifying familiar cartoon faces (0.95) than human faces (0.66) in a target present lineup. No significant difference between children and adults in identifying cartoon targets.
- Children had a lower false positive rate in cartoon target-absent lineups than those with human targets (0.74 VS. 0.45). So did adults (0.94 VS. 0.70). Adults had a significantly lower false positive (and false negative) score than children with cartoon and human targets.
CONCLUSIONS
Social factors are responsible for children’s higher rate of false positives in a target absent lineups than adults. That is, it is the child’s misconception that the researcher would prefer the child to make a selection rather than a non-selection.
It is also concluded that children’s eye-witness testimony with unfamiliar human target faces is less reliable than that of adults.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
+ Ethics (right to withdraw/informed consent/ harm/ debreief)
+ Objectivity
+ Standardisation and reliability
+ Validity and control of extraneous variables (counterbalancing of target and target-replacement position and randomisation of order of lineups + first language asked in demographics form)
- Target present lineup used as a control for comparison
- No subjectivity in choosing foils
- Mundane realism (black and white pictures)
- Use of children in psychology
- All adults from a participant pool
- Lack of standardisation: adults wrote responses + number of questions 2/3
- Adults deceived
- Not generalisable to lower Socio-economic backgrounds
- Cartoon characters 2D so extraneous variable- validity
ISSUES AND DEBATES
THE LEARNING APPROACH
SAAVEDRA AND SILVERMAN // BANDURA ET. AL/ FAGEN ET. AL
SAAVEDRA & SILVERMAN (Button phobia)
2002
The psychology being investigated:
+ Operant conditioning
The background
The aim(s)
The procedure
Research methods used
+ Various scales + Observations +Interviews
Sample size, techniques and demographics
ETHICAL ISSUES
FINDINGS/ RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
NATURE/ NURTURE DEBATE
Disgust and fear are genetic responses.
THE LEARNING APPROACH
USE OF CHILDREN IN PSYCHOLOGY
BANDURA ET. AL (AGGRESSION)
1961
The psychology being investigated:
The background
The aim(s)
hypotheses
The procedure
Research methods used
- LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
- Observation
Sample size, techniques and demographics
Experimental design
MATCHED PAIRS DESIGN
IV//DV
IV- MODEL CONDITION (AGGRESSIVE/NON-AGGRESSIVE/CONTROL) + SEX
DV- IMITATIVE BEHAVIOUR
CONTROLS
- Routine performed by Aggressive model
- Toys and arrangement of toys
- Time spent observing model
ETHICAL ISSUES
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
Nature/ nurture
INDIVIDUAL VS. SITUATIONAL EXPLANATION
FAGEN ET. AL
2003
The psychology being investigated:
The researchers used operant conditioning to train elephants to voluntarily take part in a trunk wash- the consequence of their behaviours would determine the probability of that behaviour being performed again.
They made use of Secondary Positive Reinforcement techniques only- that is, a reward (rather than negative reinforcement) in the form of a secondary reinforcer was given every time a desired behaviour was performed, and this secondary reinforcer was associated with the primary reinforcer (whistle sound associated with chopped banana).
The behaviours were then shaped so they get increasingly closer to the desired behaviour. Eventually, the elephants were only rewarded for performing the behaviours in sequence (behavioural chaining).
The background
Captive elephant handlers in Nepal still rely heavily on punishment and aversion-based methods to elicit avoidance behaviours. They practiced free/unlimited contact between mahouts and elephants.
The aim(s)
To determine the effectiveness of Secondary Positive Reinforcement (SPR) techniques alone in training free-contact elephants in Nepal to voluntarily take part in a trunk wash to collect sputum samples necessary for Tuberculosis testing.
The procedure
* Trunk down and trunk out behaviours quickly abandoned die to them being unnecessary)
Research methods used
Non-participant, controlled, structured observation
Sample size, techniques and demographics
5 female elephants (chosen by facility staff based on docility, lack of calf or pregnancy, willingness of the Mahouts)
4 juveniles (between the ages of 4-7)
1 adult in her 50s (poor eyesight, foot abscess, trunk weakness, distracting 2 month old calf in neighbouring stall)
ETHICAL ISSUES
✔ Informed consent
✔ Pain, distress, suffering (if elephants showed lack of interest then training for the day skipped)
✔ Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
✔ Number
✔ Species
FINDINGS/ RESULTS
- The four juvenile elephants learnt the entire trunk wash in 25-35 sessions.
- Average time per training session: 12 minutes.
- The adult did not learn the trunk wash.
- The ‘trunk here’ behaviour required the most offers
- Elephants 2 and 4 never passed the steady test but were able to complete the full trunk wash.
- Success rate increased from 39% after 10 sessions to 89.3% after 35 sessions
CONCLUSIONS
SPR by itself is a feasible and efficient technique to train traditionally trained free-contact juvenile elephants to voluntarily and reliably perform a trunk wash for tuberculosis testing.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
REAL LIFE APPLICATION
SPR can be used to improve captive animal welfare, encouraging various animals to voluntarily perform veterinary procedures, reducing the need for sedatives and anaesthesia.
Animal welfare is promoted and stress caused during such procedures is eliminated; behavioural reliability and safety of staff is also improved.
NATURE/ NURTURE DEBATE
Nature-
Natural positive association with primary reinforcers like bananas which can be used for such training procedures’ success.
Nurture-
Socialisation and learning processes changing aversiveness to stimuli (syringe)
THE LEARNING APPROACH
Conditioning helps explain changes in behaviour.
Operant conditioning changed their attitude towards the syringe and trunk washing procedure.
10 MARKER EVALUATION
LINK TO APPROACH- USE OF CHILDREN IN PSYCHOLOGY- RLA- CONCLUSION
DESIGN EXPERIMENT (10 MARKS)
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