ECE133: Growth & Development of Children

Topic 1: Introduction

Brief History of Children

• One thousand years ago, as many as 25% of children died before their fifth birthday and as many as 40% of people born died before they were 16.
• Even if they survived life was hard for children. Most did not go to school. Instead from an early age they had to help the family by doing some work. Both parents and teachers were very strict and beating naughty children was normal.
• However, children did have some time to play and enjoy themselves. In ancient times, i.e. more than 2000 years life for children was very different.

Brief History of Children (Cont’)

• Ancient Egypt: Not all children attended school. Boys usually learned farming/trades from fathers, while girls learned sewing and cooking from mothers. Wealthy boys could become scribes, studying reading, writing and mathematics through copying and memorisation. Discipline was strict.
• Ancient Greece: Only boys attended school, learning reading, writing, arithmetic, poetry and music. Physical education, including dancing and athletics, was also important. Girls mainly learned household skills such as weaving and usually married young.
• Aztec civilisation: Both boys and girls attended school, but separately. They learned history, religion, music and dance. Boys later learned fighting, while children also learned practical skills such as farming, fishing, cooking and weaving from their parents.

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Children During the Industrial Revolution�

• The Industrial Revolution changed England from an agricultural to an industrial society.
• Families moved from rural areas to cities to find work.
• Many children, some as young as 6 years old, worked in factories, especially textile mills.
• Children often worked 12–14 hours a day, with few breaks and very low pay.
• Working conditions were dirty, dangerous and unhealthy, with heavy machinery causing many injuries and deaths.
• Orphans were particularly vulnerable to exploitation and were sometimes given little or no wages in exchange for food, shelter and clothing.
• Conditions began to improve after the Factory Act of 1833, which introduced protections for child workers.
• Interest in child development began to emerge in the early 19th century, initially focusing mainly on abnormal behaviour.

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What is Child Development

• Child Development is the progressive changes that occur in a predictable pattern as the result of interactions between biological and environmental factors.
• The scientific study of child development delves into the growth of humans from conception until adolescence.
• Child development includes all aspects of growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development.
• Child development is important in a number of subjects, including biology, anthropology, sociology, education, history, and psychology.
• Most important, however, are the practical applications of studying human development.
• By better understanding how and why people change and grow, we can then apply this knowledge to helping people live up to their full potential and help educators better understand the students under their care (Kendra Cherry, About.com.Guide. Psychology. 2011).

The following are some of the questions researchers in child development are interested in:

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• Are the percentages of the contributions of biological and environmental influences fixed, or are they variable?
• How important are people’s early experiences?
• What role does age play in development?
• How can we explain novel behaviours?
• Why are most children able to walk alone when they are somewhere between 10 and 15 months of age?
• Why and how does one stage of development follow another?
• Why do most children acquire language in the first few years of life?
• Why is it that some children learn quickly whereas others learn slowly?
• Are most aspects of development inevitable in a “normal” child?
• ow are theories of development different from each other?
• How are they the same?

• Child development examines these questions through interdisciplinary research involving psychologists, educators, pediatricians, linguists, sociologists, and others

• Their findings help scholars and practitioners better understand developmental processes and promote positive developmental outcomes.

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CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES :Sigmund Freud – Theory of Psychosexual Stages

• According to Sigmund Freud child development is described as a series of 'Psychosexual Stages’ outlined as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
• Each stage involves the satisfaction of a libido desire and can later play a role in adult personality.
• If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behaviour.
• According to him personality is mostly established by the age of five.
• Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behaviour later in life.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES :Sigmund Freud – Theory of Psychosexual Stages

• Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known but also one of the most controversial.
• Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
• This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behaviour. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality (Kail, 2010).

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES :Sigmund Freud – Theory of Psychosexual Stages

• If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur.
• A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.
• Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage.
• For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : Erik Erikson – Theory of Social Development

• Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory encompassed development throughout the entire human lifespan.
• Erikson believed that each stage of development was focused on overcoming a conflict.
• For example, the primary conflict during the adolescent period involves establishing a sense of personal identity.
• Success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at each stage can impact overall functioning.
• During the adolescent stage, for example, failure to develop an identity results in role confusion.
• *[We will discuss in detail this theory in Topic 10: Emotional Development].

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : Jean Piaget – Theory of Cognitive Development

• Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development.
• He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world.
• According to his theory, children can be thought of as "little scientists" who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world
• [We will discuss in detail this theory in Topic 6: Cognitive Development].

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory

• Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education.
• Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.
• His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions.
• He believed children learn through hands-on experience, as Piaget suggested.
• However, unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task. called the Zone of Proximal Development, could help children learn to do new tasks.
• [We will discuss in detail this theory in Topic 6: Cognitive Development].

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : John Bowlby – Attachment Theory

• John Bowlby proposed one of the earliest theories of social development called „Attachment Theory‟.
• Bowlby believed that early relationships with parents and caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.
• Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and pleasure
• [We will discuss in detail this theory in Topic 9: Emotional Development].

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory

• Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviours from observing other people.
• Unlike behavioural theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things.
• Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could also lead to learning.
• By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES : Lawrence Kohlberg – Theory of Moral Development

• Kohlberg proposed the theory of moral development or moral understanding.
• Using moral dilemmas which were short stories in which subjects are asked to give their opinion, he was able to classify people according to their level of moral understanding
• [We will discuss in detail this theory in Chapter 5: Moral Development].

Doing Research on Child Development

• When a researcher decides to study children, the task usually begins by choosing a topic or behaviour to study and then focusing on a basic method that will allow the information to be gathered in the most efficient and effective manner.
• The “Scientific Method of Inquiry” which consists of the following steps is adopted:
• 1. Asking a question
• 2. Determining what factors or elements are important and how they will be examined
• 3. Testing the original question
• 4. Accepting or rejecting the premise on which the original question was based

Example:

Methods of Doing Research on Child Development

A) Observational Methods

Definition: Planned watching, recording, and analysis of behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting.

Key features: Precautions are taken to avoid interfering with behaviour (e.g., concealment, one-way mirrors, videotaping).

Naturalistic observation: The least intrusive form; behaviour is observed in a natural environment (home, day-care, school). Drawback: Little control over extraneous variables; behaviour may not occur often.

Laboratory/contrived settings: Conditions are standardized for all participants. Drawback: Participants may not behave naturally.

Data: Field notes are analysed for themes and major ideas.

B) Self-Reports

Two forms:

Interview method: Researcher poses questions to participants in informal or formal settings and records responses.

Self-report instrument: Participants respond to a questionnaire or structured instrument (more suitable for children aged 7+).

Advantages/Disadvantages:

Structured instruments: Provide control, permit comparisons, aid efficient data collection.

Interviews: May provide richer information but are difficult to compare across individuals/groups.

C) Survey

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Definition: Studying large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen from the population to discover the relative incidence, distribution, and interrelations of sociological and psychological variables.

Purpose: Obtain information about a population from a representative sample.

Strengths: Quick, inexpensive, accurate means of obtaining information from a large group; useful for opinions, attitudes, and perceptions; can explain relationships and differences between variables.

Requirements: Carefully pre-tested questionnaire, representative sample, appropriate data analysis methods.

D) Experiments

Definition: A research method used to determine the effectiveness of a particular action or treatment on a single or group of organisms.

Setting: Can be conducted in laboratories (controlled conditions, accurate measurement) or in real-world settings.

Key features:

Researcher controls all other factors that might influence the change.

Best method to show effectiveness (e.g., teaching method, curriculum innovation).

Only method that permits confidence in causal statements ("X caused Y").

Design: Often includes pre-test, treatment (independent variable), and post-test. Differences between pre- and post-test scores determine effectiveness.

Control: Ruling out other possible causes for behaviour changes. Extraneous variables must be controlled to avoid contaminating findings.

Groups:

Experimental group: Subjects exposed to the treatment.

Control group: Subjects who do not receive the treatment.

Comparison between groups determines effectiveness.

Internal validity: Necessary to control outside factors in natural-setting experiments.

E) Case Study

Definition: An in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community.

Data collection: Variety of sources and methods (observations, interviews).

Origin: Clinical medicine (case history).

Purpose: Allows detailed investigation beyond what is possible with large numbers of participants.

F) Longitudinal Research

Definition: A research study involving repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time.

Use: Studying developmental trends across the life span; tracking the same people over time to identify changes.

Example: Tracking 50 children over 30 years to find common factors in criminality.

G) Correlational Method

Definition: Technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them is assessed.

Purpose: Determine how much one variable can be predicted from another.

Positive correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases (e.g., hours revising and exam results).

Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., flu jabs given and people with flu).

Important caveat: Correlation does not imply causation.

G) Correlational Method (Cont’)

Research Ethics

• 1. Ensure that the purpose of the research is clearly explained, that children and adults understand what they agreeing to, and that their expectations of being involved in the research are not raised or unrealistic.
• 2. Researchers must obtain informed consent of parents or caregivers, and of children who have the capacity to consent, and this is requested at the outset of the study.
• 3. Researchers are also clearly instructed that informed consent must be freely given and voluntary, and that people need time to think about participation
• 4. Researchers should make every effort not to put any pressure on them to participate in the study and to make it clear that there will be no adverse consequences for them if they refuse to take part.
• 5. Researcher should explain the concept of anonymity in words they can understand. They should know that their identity will be kept a secret and that the information will not be used to identify them or to describe their life in particular, but rather to explain the typical life of a child in their community.
• 6. Researchers should ensure that the circumstances in which the research is conducted provide for the physical, emotional and psychological safety of the child.
• 7. Information can be given about the storage of data and who will have access to it, and how it will be used, in the same clear language as used about the research.

Ecological Systems Theory — Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)�

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. It is not a stage theory explaining the development of a child and instead labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influences children's development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

The different aspects or levels of environment are: The Microsystem | The Mesosystem | The Exosystem | The Macrosystem

a) The MICROSYSTEM

The MICROSYSTEM is the small, immediate environment the child lives in and includes the family, school, peer group, neighborhood, and childcare environments. It is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. How these groups or organisations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. For example, a child's parents may affect his beliefs and behaviour; however, the child also affects the behaviour and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and shows how they occur among all levels of environment.

b) The MESOSYSTEM

The MESOSYSTEM is the second level which describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For example, if a child's parents or caregivers take an active role in a child's school, such as going to parent-teacher conferences and watching their child's football games, this will help ensure the child's overall growth. In contrast, if the child's parents disagree how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons when they see him, this will hinder the child's growth in different channels (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

1.6 Ecological Systems Theory (continued)

c) The EXOSYSTEM

The EXOSYSTEM is the third level which includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often but that still have a large affect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighbourhood, etc. For example, if a child's father loses his job, it may have negative affects on the child if family is unable to pay rent or to buy groceries. On the other hand if her father receives a promotion and a raise at work, this may have a positive affect on the child because her parents will be better able to buy things for her.

d) The MACROSYSTEM

The MACROSYSTEM is the final level and is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child. The macrosystem includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc. These things can also affect a child either positively or negatively (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). For example, in areas that are experiencing or experienced war and violence such as Palestine, Rwanda, Lebanon and Serbia, the impact on children is most noticeable.

Key Quote by Bronfenbrenner

"Children need people in order to become human... It is primarily through observing, playing, and working with others older and younger than himself that a child discovers both what he can do and who he can become." — Bronfenbrenner (1973)

1.6 Ecological Systems Theory (continued)

Hereditary vs Environment

• Heredity (Nature): Traits, behaviours, and characteristics determined by genes inherited from parents (e.g., eye colour, hair colour, physical features). Some scholars believe genes determine thinking and behaviour, including chemical imbalances or "animal instincts."
• Environment (Nurture): Traits, behaviours, and characteristics shaped by external factors such as stress, peer pressure, media, parenting practices, and life experiences. Supporters believe people think and behave in certain ways because they are taught and learn to do so.
• Interactionist view: Many believe development results from a combination of both heredity and environment interacting dynamically.

The Columbine Example

In April 1999, two boys shot 15 students at Columbine High School in Colorado. The media offered various interpretations:

Nature explanation: Genetic/hereditary traits, chemical imbalances, or "animal instincts" caused the violent behaviour.

Nurture explanation: Environmental factors such as stress, peer pressure, media influence, and poor parenting caused the behaviour.

Combination view: The violent acts likely resulted from an unfortunate interaction among various hereditary (such as mental illness) and environmental factors (such as the media).

Twin Studies�

Twin studies provide a unique opportunity to examine the influence of heredity and environment, particularly regarding IQ.

Types of twins:

Monozygotic (identical) twins: Begin as a single fertilized egg that separates; genetically equivalent.

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins: Conceived as two separate fertilized eggs; share about 50% of genetic makeup.

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• Identical twins raised together show highest similarity, suggesting heredity influences intelligence (they share similar environments and genes).
• If heredity were the only factor, the correlation should be 1.00, but it is not—identical twins are never exactly alike even when raised together, indicating environment also plays a role.
• Identical twins raised apart show lower similarity (0.72), providing evidence that environment plays a role even when genetics are identical.
• Fraternal twins raised together show even lower similarity (0.60), suggesting lower genetic similarity reduces IQ correlation.
• Identical twins separated at birth and adopted into different homes exhibit similarities in academic achievement, love for dancing, food preferences, movie preferences, and clothing choices.

Conclusion

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• The link between a gene and a behaviour is not the same as cause and effect. A gene may increase the likelihood of a behaviour but does not make people do things.
• The relationship between heredity and environment is bidirectional, not a one-way street from genes to environment to behaviour.
• Heredity and environment interact dynamically throughout development.
• Heredity provides the clay of life; experience does the sculpting.
• In some instances, the environment can activate or "turn on" genes (e.g., teenage girls begin menstruation at a younger age if they had a stressful childhood).
• While twin studies reveal that heredity contributes to IQ and other psychological characteristics, generalizing from twin evidence to the population is controversial. Heritability estimates have too many problems to yield definitive conclusions about the relative strength of nature and nurture.
• Researchers on all sides agree that we still get to choose who we will be when we grow up.

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