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There can be few professions more ready to misunderstand each other than journalists and soldiers. Between the two sides, and the source of stress has always been the same, namely the difficult question of how much information could and should be given to journalists.”

The armed forces are seen by journalists as the epitome of the establishment, because of the obvious hierarchical structure, the uniform, the strict discipline and traditionally the tight-lipped approach to media relations.

General (Retd) Paul Manson

The newsman and the military officer consider many of the same qualities to be important in their respective professions: initiative, responsibility, professionalism, dedication, efficiency, team-work, delegation of authority, self-discipline, forward planning and flexibility.

Alan Hooper in his book “The Military and the Media”

Public opinion tends to respond to what the public sees and hears on its television set. That can be very dangerous, or it can be very helpful.

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Introduction

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What is War Reporting?�

War reporting encompasses coverage of armed conflicts, civil wars, insurgencies, peacekeeping operations and post-conflict reconstruction. It's not limited to frontline battle coverage but includes:

Political analysis of conflict causes and consequences
Humanitarian crises and civilian impact
Military strategy and tactics
Diplomatic efforts and peace processes
Economic effects of warfare
Long-term social and cultural implications

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Historical Context

War reporting as we know it began during the Crimean War (1853-1856) with William Howard Russell of The Times considered the first modern war correspondent. His vivid reporting shocked the British public, exposed military incompetence and sparked public outrage, demonstrating journalism's power to influence policy.

Key evolutionary moments include:

World War I. Heavy censorship, propaganda challenges.
World War II. Embedded reporting, war reporting became more organised but also heavily censored. Governments controlled what was published to maintain morale.
Vietnam War. First "television war “,brought the brutality of war into living rooms, influencing public opinion and policy.
Gulf War 1991. CNN revolutionised real-time war reporting.
Kargil. 1999
Iraq & Afghanistan. Embedded journalism, digital media.
Ukraine. Use of drones, open-source intelligence (OSINT) and citizen journalism.
OP SINDOOR. 2025
Digital age. Social media, citizen journalism, instant global reach.

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Responsibilities of Journalists in Reporting Conflict

Duty to understand conflict.
Duty to report fairly.
Duty to report background and causes of conflicts.
Duty to present the human side.
Duty to report on peace efforts.
Duty to recognize our influence.

Source: Ross Howard, Conflict-sensitive journalism. International Media Support

(IMS) and IMPACS: http://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-csjhandbook-2004.pdf

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War reporting remains one of journalism's most vital functions. In an era of information warfare and declining trust in media, credible conflict reporting becomes even more crucial. The work requires exceptional skill, courage and ethical grounding

Key takeaways:

Accuracy and independence are non-negotiable.
Safety preparation is a professional responsibility.
Cultural competency and language skills are essential.
Mental health support is not optional.
Technology changes methods but not fundamental principles.
Human stories remain at the heart of meaningful reporting.

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Reporting Techniques & Storytelling

Verification in chaos.
Interviewing traumatised sources.
Writing with humanity.
Multimedia storytelling.

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�There are three categories of journalists who can work in the armed conflict areas and who are protected under the International Humanitarian Law:�

War correspondents.
Journalists on dangerous professional missions in armed conflict zones.
Journalists who are embedded with military units.

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The International Declaration on the Protection of Journalists published in December 2015 in Geneva by 70 media organisations – including Al Jazeera Media Network, Article 19, Associated Press, Association of European Journalists, BBC, BuzzFeed CNN Committee to Protect Journalists, Dart Centre, Ethical Journalism Network, Institute of Mass Information, Ukraine OSCE.

Representative on Freedom of the Media, UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, UNESCO Division on Freedom of Expression and Media Support – introduces a new approach to responsibility for journalists’ safety, and emphasises the importance of raising awareness of journalists, editorial boards and media organisations of the best practices related to safety, policies and mechanisms aimed at assessing and managing risks faced by journalists.

Source: http://ipi.freemedia.at/safety-of-journalists/international-declaration-onthe-protection-of-journalists.html

Protection of Journalist and Media Personnel

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Essential Skills Development

Language Preparation. Learn basic phrases in local languages. Even simple greetings can build trust and show respect. Consider formal language training for regions you plan to cover extensively.

Cultural Competency. Understand religious practices, social customs and historical context. Your cultural awareness directly impacts your ability to gain trust and avoid dangerous misunderstandings.

Technical Skills.

Satellite communication equipment.
Digital security and encryption.
Basic medical training.
Photography and video production.
Social media verification tools.

Physical Preparation. Maintain good physical fitness. War zones often require walking long distances, carrying heavy equipment, and enduring physical hardship.

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�The Practicalities - Before You Go�

This is the unglamorous homework that saves lives.

Assignment Commission. You must have a clear mandate from your news organisation. Who is responsible for you? Who do you check in with? What is the emergency protocol? Never go as a freelancer without a firm, written commission and insurance.
Training: Do Not Skip This. Hostile Environment and First Aid Training (HEFAT) is non-negotiable. It covers first aid, trauma care, kidnapping survival, landmine awareness and situational assessment. It is your most important investment.
Logistics.

Visas and Accreditation. Often need permission from militaries, governments or non-state actors. This is a complex process.
Health. Vaccinations, a comprehensive medical kit, any personal medications.
Communication. Satellite phones, Inmarsat for internet, backup power banks. Know how to use them.
Cash. Banks may not work. Emergency cash in multiple currencies.
Local Fixer/Translator/Driver. This is your most important local contact. They are your guide, your cultural interpreter, and often your key to access and safety. Treat them with respect and as an equal part of your team. Ensure they are also insured.

Research. Understand the conflict's history, the key players, the local culture, and the geography. What are the front lines? What are the local customs, especially regarding dress and interaction? Knowledge is a layer of protection.

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Safety Advice During Planning Process

Research (historical, geographic, cultural and political data about the country/territory).
Review of the conflict history, study of cultural and religious specifics, gathering up-to-date information about the current situation.
Map study (including the location of hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, note that it is common practice to have mobile hospitals in conflict zones).
Planning logistics (routes and road conditions, places to spend nights, a place for the “base” and a meeting point if anyone gets lost, etc.).
Contact information (list of phones of everyone with whom you will be in contact).
Full medical examination. if you travel to the conflict zone sick, you jeopardise your co-travellers. You must know your own and your teammates’ blood type, allergic reactions, chronic diseases, high/low blood pressure levels, etc.

Gear Checklist. Essentials like a satellite phone, reliable power banks, basic medical kit, body armour (different levels of protection) and a secure hard drive.

Packing right clothes. suitable for the weather and climatic zone! Avoid synthetic fabrics (they are highly inflammable) and camouflage (you may be mistaken for a combatant).
Keeping your passport and permitting documents in a place where they will not be lost but will be easily taken out as per the armed forces request. The package should be formed as recommended by the accrediting agencies.

The "Go-Bag“. Explain the concept of a pre-packed bag with essentials for a quick escape.

Preparing technical equipment and protective gear.
When carrying advanced communications gear with you, including satellite phones, be aware of any local laws about their use and/or registration.

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�Security Protocols�

Establish check-in schedules with editors.
Share detailed itineraries with trusted contacts.
Maintain low profiles when necessary.
Understand escape routes and safe houses.
Carry appropriate identification and press credentials.

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Things to Remember when Reporting in Conflict

In a conflict, truth is the first victim. tensions are high. People pick sides. You can ask three people what happened somewhere and get three different answers.
Fighting for your right to be impartial can compromise your safety and security, personal relationships and even your freedom as a conflict grinds on.
Understanding the point of view of the people you’re talking to can help you to empathise but also can mean you become biased. This is especially true when you are working constantly in the same conflict, you are embedding with troops with whom you have become friendly, or the conflict has personal ties.
It is very difficult to push hard on the ethical decisions or skills of the military commander who is making sure you are safe and getting you access to a frontline.
Sometimes this means you aren’t able to access all the information from both sides, but have to qualify that in your writing and seek additional viewpoints once you are in a safe place.
The people you embed with will feed you propaganda and it takes many forms. As journalists, it is our job to try to wade through this propaganda and find the truth. Ensuring we don’t become simply a conduit for propaganda is difficult make sure to explain to the people you are a journalist who has ethical standards to meet and the responsibility to be impartial and fair in your reporting.
The language you use in reporting can also have an influence on the impartiality of your reporting. Calling lands “occupied” or “liberated”, Calling someone an enemy has a connotation.
When you are reporting on conflict, looking after yourself is number one priority. Being in active conflict for long periods is very stressful. You need time to decompress in between trips.
Care for the people you are interviewing, especially in a conflict situation where they may be innocent victims of conflict, be it injured civilians, IDPs and refugees or traumatised individuals. Sometimes you need to make a judgement call about the appropriateness of speaking to someone at that time about what they have endured, especially questions of physical and sexual assault. If identifying them will endanger them, maybe you can hide their identity or obscure who they are, and get the news out without placing your interviewees at further risk.
A lot of what happens to the victims of war is hugely traumatising: earn their trust and be kind and considerate in your approach. Try to finish in a positive way and don’t leave them visibly upset with no support.
Female journalists have it easier and harder in the field, depending on the situation.

Continue….

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Things to Remember when Reporting in Conflict

Avoid emotional and imprecise words. Assassination, for example, is the murder of a head of state and no one else. Massacre is the deliberate killing of innocent, unarmed civilians.
Avoid words like terrorist, extremist or fanatic.
Avoid making an opinion into a fact. If someone claims something, state their name, so it is their opinion and not your fact.
Avoid waiting for leaders on one side to offer solutions. Explore peace ideas wherever they come from. Put these ideas to the leaders and report their response. But there are others as well.
Avoid the tendency to favour official (government and military) sources.
Avoid finding the point of coverage that fits only one side’s narrative.
Cover the conflict in its entirety and all its complexity.
Avoid inserting opinion into news coverage. News should present information that then allows the public to decide how it feels. Inserting opinion only serves to fuel distrust, misunderstanding and resentment toward the media and between those involved in the conflict.
Avoid oversimplification. Every conflict, even those between siblings, usually has some kind of history. Ensure that you and/or your media outlet provide a variety of coverage that can illustrate the bigger picture.
Avoid resorting to mostly human interest stories that rely on emotion to illustrate weighty issues, or using a zero-sum debt approach that ignores the complexities of the situation.
Do not show dead bodies and blood. Explain what has happened. If possible, do not even use the word “corpse”, replacing it with “the killed” or “bodies”. Concentrate on human stories.
Show what is being done to save people, report about survivors and let people speak: tell their stories of how they got saved, what helped them to survive. It is important to provide hope for people.

Source: https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-csjhandbook-2004.pdf

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Digital Security and Social Media Behaviour

The social media does not only provide an opportunity to communicate with your colleagues, target audience and develop your own journalistic reputation, but it is also a very convenient way to access information.
Your posts and opinions could be the reason for your detention or even for a manhunt on you.
Publicity is a natural environment for media professionals, therefore everyone should decide for themselves how to use social media.
Recommendation. Create a “working” and a “private” accounts, maybe even under different names, to have access to the news and to communicate with your friends.

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ETHICS & DILEMMAS IN WAR REPORTING

Objectivity vs. compassion.
Graphic content. How much should you show?
Avoiding propaganda & misinformation.
Protecting sources (especially in authoritarian regimes).
Responsibility towards victims (informed consent, avoiding re-traumatisation).

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Journalist Ethics and Combat Operations

Freedom of speech disappears when journalists become “combatants of the information war”

Maxim Eristavi, co-founder of Hromadske International

The main international instruments spelling out these standards are: the IFJ Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists (available at: http:// www.ifj.org/about-ifj/ifj-code-of-principles/) and the International Principles of Professional Ethics in Journalism (available at: http://ethicnet.uta.fi/international/international_principles_of_professional_ethics_in_journalism).

Timeliness of information. In the combat environment, information about certain events may become known much later than the day of the event, information should be presented when it becomes known. When reporting about a past event, the journalist should do their best to find out the exact date and time of the event with the help of its participants and witnesses.

Information authenticity (verifying information and referencing the sources). journalists should provide information the origin of which they know, clearly indicate their information sources and name the experts. it is essential to protect the information sources that could not be disclosed for safety reasons.

News reporters could present information provided by officially authorised public agencies or their authorised representatives. However, it does not mean they should not seek alternative evidence to confirm or disprove that information by talking to direct participants or witnesses of the events. One should remember that, for different reasons, official agencies often provide edited or not quite accurate information.

Information about the killed, wounded, gone missing and taken hostage. Information about the people who were killed or wounded, went missing or were taken prisoners should be verified with special care and exclusively from the competent sources.

Using video-archives. strictly forbidden to use archive pictures as illustrations for reporting on current events in the combat operations zone or on the occupied territory

Anonymity of the participants and witnesses of events in a conflict zone. people in the conflict zone are extremely vulnerable, and they may be or, in fact, are in real danger. Showing and identifying these people by name in the situations of exposure is unacceptable

Specifics of using the standard of presenting balanced information. Representatives or leaders of terrorists or occupants, as well as their supporters should not be given a voice in the media to justify their actions in violation of the country’s sovereignty and territorial integrity

Accuracy and fullness of presenting facts and information about an issue.

Journalistic reports on combat operations should not disclose the following information: exact data on deployment and movements of the troops or their units; number of military personnel in different combat sectors; exact data on types and number of weapons in specific units; information about commanders’ plans and about combat tactics, etc.

They should be careful not to film signposts that can help identify the location of checkpoints. Sometimes it is better not to shoot weapons or machinery to avoid exposing availability of some specific types of armament.

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The Art of Interviewing and Storytelling�

Interviewing in a War Zone

Building Trust. Especially with traumatized individuals. Be patient, respectful, and empathetic.

Open-ended Questions. Avoid 'yes' or 'no' questions.

Trauma-Informed Approach. Understand that sources may not be able to recall events clearly or may have difficulty speaking.

The 'Fixer‘. Acknowledge the vital role of local fixers. They are not just translators; they are guides, protectors, and cultural liaisons.

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How to Interview a Person Affected by the Conflict – Tips from Psychologists

Understand how to interview people who suffered from serious trauma – wounded and maimed soldiers, people who survived captivity, families of the killed or refugees. It is hard for them to talk about their experience. And it is hard for journalists to write about such things. Very often, journalists are the first people who question the victims and the first to hear their stories.
let a person you are going to interview to select a place and time for the interview. Probably, you should better not start asking questions right away. Invite the person to discuss what they want. Several meetings could be required. Please, remember that the person might have lost confidence in people and may need to learn anew how to trust people, including journalists.
Do not appeal to justice, do not promise that after the broadcast everything would be settled and the guilty would be punished, etc. If you do that, you may inflict even more trauma on the person. Do not give idle promises unless you are sure you can deliver. Do not let your emotions have command over you.
It is better to interview people not immediately after the experienced trauma but after some time, because the person’s mental health might not have recovered yet.
Do not ask too many questions. It is better to formulate questions in a simple way.

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Journalistic Taboos or What Journalists Should�Never Do in a Post-conflict Environment

Avoid reporting a conflict as consisting of two opposing sides. Find other affected interests and include their stories, opinions, goals.
Avoid defining the conflict by always quoting the leaders who make familiar demands. Go beyond the elites and give to ordinary people who also have a stake in this conflict.
Avoid only reporting what divides the sides in conflict. Ask the opposing sides questions that may reveal common ground. Report on interests or goals they may share.
Avoid always focusing on the suffering and fear of only one side. Treat all sides’ suffering as equally newsworthy.
Avoid words like devastated, tragedy and terrorised to describe what has been done to one group. These kinds of words put the reporter on one.

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Use of Media for Military Deception

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Operation Guardian of the Walls, May 2021

IDF statement to the world media – IDF Air and Ground Troops are currently attacking in the Gaza Strip.
Several foreign news outlets were told categorically that IDF troops had entered Gaza.
Leading media houses including Washington Post, New York Times and AFP published that and Israeli ground assault had begun citing IDFs spokesperson Jonathan Conricus.
Hours later IDF issued a clarification that there were no troops inside Gaza.
HAMAS sent out there reconnaissance and Anti Tank guided missiles which were hit by Israel from there own territory.
HAMAS took defensive position in the under ground network of tunnels know as “the Metro”.
Israel sent 160 Aircrafts and bombed the tunnels for 40 minutes.

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How to Avoid Being Manipulated

Techniques used by governments and those with agendas numerous techniques used by governments and those with agendas, which include:

Paying journalists to promote certain issues without the journalist acknowledging this, or without the media mentioning the sources [http://original.antiwar.com/justin/2005/01/28/payola-pundits-for-war/;]
Governments and individuals contracting public relations firms to sell the war or various issues associated with it [http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/06/07/the-manipulator]
Providing disinformation or partial information to journalists who then report this as news or fact without attributing sources that might be questionable;
Fear mongering or intimidating journalists so that they will self-censor;
Using smear tactics to discredit or destroy the reputation of someone, including journalists. So how do we avoid such manipulation?
Don’t accept payment or in-kind favours from anyone. Not only will this make you prone to manipulation (even if you think you can resist) but, perhaps, more importantly it could create the perception of manipulation.
Ask questions. Be sceptical and never take anything at face value. Ask the questions everyone else is afraid to ask or believes it unpatriotic to ask. That is our job. To ask questions!
Understand what you are covering.
Avoid self-censorship. Often when we are afraid of something we will self-censor.
Maintain distance from politicians so that you can do your job effectively.

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The Future of War Reporting�

The Evolving Landscape

Citizen Journalists and Social Media. The rise of open-source intelligence (OSINT). How do professional journalists verify and use this information?
Rise of citizen journalism vs. trained war correspondents.

Responsibility for fact-checking in an age of deepfakes and mis/disinformation.

The Drone Revolution. The ethical and practical implications of using drones for coverage.

The 'Freelance' Problem. Many war reporters are freelancers with limited institutional support. Need for better safety protocols and contracts.

Virtual Reality and Immersive Storytelling. Potential for new technologies to put the audience "on the ground."

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�Digital Age Challenges�

Social Media Verification. User-generated content provides unprecedented access but requires careful verification. Learn to use tools like:

InVID verification plugin
TinEye reverse image search
Forensic analysis software
Geolocation techniques

Security Considerations. Digital devices can be tracked and hacked. Understand:

Secure communication apps
VPN usage
Data encryption
Device security protocols

Emerging Technologies

Drone Journalism. Unmanned aircraft provide new perspectives but raise safety and legal questions.
Artificial Intelligence. AI tools can help with translation, transcription, and analysis but require human oversight.
Satellite Imagery. Commercial satellite services provide verification and context for ground reports.

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MODERN CHALLENGES & FUTURE OF WAR REPORTING

Today’s war reporters face new challenges:

Disinformation and deepfakes that can undermine credibility.
Governments restricting access, Censorship, embedded reporting to control narratives.�
Declining budgets meaning fewer resources for safety. �
Rise of freelancers, often working without institutional support. Safety of Freelance Journalists

Role of AI, drones, satellite imagery

The future may see more collaboration – journalists working with open-source intelligence analysts, NGOs, and even AI tools to verify data. But at its heart, war reporting will always require human courage and judgment.”

Ethical debates over citizen journalism vs. professional standards.

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Conclusion

“War reporting is not a glamorous job. It is a vital and often thankless one. It requires courage, not just in the face of physical danger, but in the face of moral ambiguity."

When you look through the camera lens, at some point you get a feeling that you are watching a movie and once you switch off the camera, everything will stop. As if you control the situation. Very often you may see journalists who run towards shootings covering themselves with the camera as a shield or with the tag “press” on their front/back. The understanding that you are just an “actor” in somebody else‘s movie, the script of which has been written by fate, comes later. The next bullet could be yours. There is no frame, which could be worth your life.

- Yefrem Lukatsky

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- Yefrem Lukatsky

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�The Aftermath - Debriefing and Self-Care:�

From the Battlefield to the Newsroom

The Writing Process. How to structure a compelling narrative. The inverted pyramid still applies, but storytelling is key.

Debriefing. The importance of talking to colleagues and editors about what you've seen.

The Challenge of Re-entry. Discuss the emotional whiplash of returning to a 'normal' life after covering a conflict.

Mental Health Resources. Emphasize the importance of seeking professional help if needed.

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PREPARATION FOR WAR REPORTING

Research: Understanding the conflict’s history, factions, culture.

Training: Hostile Environment Awareness Training (HEAT).

Documentation: Accreditation, visas, permissions.

Equipment: Protective gear (body armor, helmet), satellite phones, first-aid kits, digital security.

Building local contacts (fixers, translators).

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Study Before the Assignment

Climate and fauna specifics.
Specifics of combat operations conducted by the conflicting parties.
Types of machinery they use.
Diseases and medication.
Religious and cultural differences.
Should also have a contingency plan (or plan “B”).

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Reporting Techniques in a Conflict Zone�

Safety First: "No story is worth your life." Emphasize situational awareness.

Multiple Sources: The need to corroborate every piece of information. Talk to combatants, civilians, aid workers, and officials.

"Show, Don't Tell": Use powerful anecdotes, sensory details, and direct quotes to bring the story to life.

The Human Angle: Focus on the impact of the conflict on ordinary people. A single story of a family losing their home is often more powerful than a list of casualties.

The Logistical Nightmare: How to file a story when there's no internet, no electricity, and no clear path back to your base.

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Facilitating Effective Communication: Rules and Guidelines

Imperative for journalists to understand what conflict is and what causes conflict causes of conflict

Resources are scarce or not shared fairly, as in food, housing, jobs or land.

There is little or no communication between the two (or more) groups in conflict.
The groups have incorrect ideas and beliefs about each other.
There exist unresolved grievances exist from the past.
Power is unevenly distributed.

Journalists tend to tell the story of conflict as a zero-sum game with only one winner. But such reporting is dangerous and often means we have only done a part of our job, for we cannot forget the context of the conflict (be it history, the environment, etc.) or the players and the actors involved.

What are the rules and guidelines to facilitate effective communication? We first need to identify who we are communicating with – is it our audience? Our sources? The military? Government?

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Seek out other parties and other points of views, which should not simply repeat old grievances by the old elites.
Examine what the various parties to the conflict or affected by the conflict are seeking.
Examine the various possibilities for withdrawal, compromise or resolution (whatever that might look like) and write about these various possibilities.
Resist the temptation to report the conflict as a zero-sum game.
Are aware of the critical language we both receive and disseminate.
Remember that we as media have the power to set the tone, to legitimize or delegitimize and influence public opinion simply by the words we choose.

Media Personnel can facilitate effective communication by ensuring