Ketoshaya

/ketoʃaja/

An agglutinative language with "no adjectives or adverbs"

June 22, 2023

Table of Contents

1. Introduction and Sample Texts
2. Phonology, Phonotactics, and Orthography
3. Nouns
4. Verbs
5. Turning Verbs into Nouns and Nouns into Verbs
6. Adjectival and Adverbial Constructions
7. Subordination
8. Questions, Negation, and Discourse Markers
9. Numbers
10. Appendix

1. Introduction & Sample Texts

zoshinaya zoshiya

zo-ʃina-ja zo-ʃi-ja

on-land-LOC on-water-LOC

Ketoshaya idiom meaning "by all means" or "at all costs" - literally "on land and on water"

Location, history, and influences

Ketoshaya is a language isolate that is the national language of the fictional country of Ketosh. Ketosh is a former Soviet Republic located somewhere near the Caspian Sea north of the Greater Caucuses.

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As an agglutintive language with a simple phonology, Ketoshaya does not fit in well with the Caucuses. Perhaps its speakers migrated there from further north in Eurasia. The language has significant borrowings from Byzantine Greek, Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and Russian. There are also some borrowings from Georgian, Armenian, Chechen, and even a few that can be traced to Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Uralic.

Ketosh is located here somewhere

national flag of Ketosh

Weird terminology specific to Ketoshaya studies

Example sentence with gloss

conèspimi shen èknoyi ùmiyirrùyal tasoconèsina yen ci tarkanarral kolmofasasacimina, insani monal conèspiminatyan budgolètòm

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the act of a person twice-doing a similar action and expecting different results, we call this act insanity

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conɛs-pim-i ʃen ɛkno-ji ʌmi-jirʌ-jal taso-conɛs-ina jen c-i taɾ-kanar-al

act-DEF-NOM that person-NOM 2-do-PRS.R same-act-ACC and 1P-NOM before-count-PRS.R

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kolmo-fasa-sa-cim-ina in-san-i mon-al conɛs-pim-ina-tjan bud-golɛt-ɔm

different-fact-PL-FUT-ACC 1P-PL-NOM call-PRS.R act-DEF-ACC-PROX as-insanity-RNOM

Example sentence with gloss

shoshazsabima kashutpisani irrèbal noshù èknosanina sha cisani irrèbal shotyakanpima

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During former days, the kings treated with goodness people who worked inside the castle

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ʃo-ʃaʒ-sa-bim-a kaʃut-pi-san-i irɛ-bal noʃ-ʌ

during-day-PL-PST-LOC king-DEF-PL-NOM do-PST.R goodness-COM

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ɛkno-san-ina ʃa ci-san-i irɛ-bal ʃo-tjakan-pim-a

person-PL-ACC that 3P-PL-NOM work-PST.R inside-castle-DEF-LOC

Sample Text - Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

revèknosani avneserral èlèfù yen budpeshirrsanòm payègadèshinana yen payveshregayana. cisani sarreybal krukadinina yen zhunregayina yen irrùvacèl kolmoyèknosanana zhyodùma soyètshinan.

Sample Text - Lord's Prayer + Byzantine Rite Doxology

tankroyèni insanan sha devadal shodayipirroga

vyeni azan komòm

kashutshini azan lamascel, vagayi azan avirrùcel

zobesha taciyipirrogòm

azi norrocel zoshazhatyan shazhòshòyina insanan

yen kurrencel beginsanina insanan insanana

zhyoda sha insani kurrenal cisani sha yemekal insanina

yen diya berrancel insanina zivarrkarresvaga

yod zhibarmicitcel insanina vushgonaga

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mek kashutshinpimi, sazumpimi, yen rekazpimi azan

tankroyènpiman, tankopòpiman, yen aciyòsègadèpiman

zokezatyan yen shodayòmarrgorrana

shogorransana yen shogorransana

Sample text: Book of Ezekiel (Chariot of God)

Sample text: Book of Exodus (Plague of Frogs)

diya azi zirrvevdocel cisanina, zu ini zhimicitnocel zhiloylisbacetina. nili avzasdevnocel varzhiloysanùma. cisani lamasnocel zhityakana azan, zhishomorrèsèta azan, zotetarra azan, zhitolunpisana korritsanan azan, zoyèknosana azan, zhitepalsana azan zhibaròshòakurrsana azan

if you do not release them, yea I will bring a frog-plague. The Nile would be dwelt-in ten-fold by frogs. they would come into your castle, into your sleep-chamber, onto your bed, into the houses of your councilors, onto your people, into your ovens, into your bread-troughs

dija az-i zirvev-do-cel ci-san-ina zu in-i ʒimicit-no-cel ʒiloj-lis-bacet-ina nil-i

NEG 2P-NOM release-HYP-FUT.IRR 3P-PL-ACC yes 1P-NOM bring-COND-FUT.IRR frog-big-disease-ACC Nile-NOM

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av-zas-dev-no-cel vaɾ-ʒiloj-san-ʌma ci-san-i lamas-no-cel ʒi-tjakan-a az-an ʒi-ʃomor-ɛsɛt-a az-an

PASS-10-dwell-COND-FUT.IRR by-frog-PL-INST 3P-PL-NOM come-COND-FUT.IRR into-castle-LOC 2P-GEN into-sleep-room-LOC 2P-GEN

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zo-tetar-a az-an ʒi-tolun-pi-san-a korit-san-an az-an zoj-ɛkno-san-a az-an ʒi-tepal-san-a az-an ʒibaɾ-ɔʃɔ-akur-san-a az-an

on-bed-LOC 2P-GEN into-house-DEF-PL-LOC council-PL-GEN 2P-GEN on-person-PL-LOC 2P-GEN into-oven-PL-LOC 2P-GEN into-bread-trough-PL-LOC 2P-GEN

Sample text: Soviet propaganda posters

"towards the future by means of mechanized agriculture"

"our library bears the glorious name of Lenin"

"the workers and the farmers are one!"

Sample text: awkward office conversations

• Introduction and Basics

Bonigènèt

bonig-ɛnɛt

devil-fart

a small town in southern Ketosh with fumaroles - literally "devil's fart"

used to refer to any backwater or obscure place

Basic overview of features

• Highly agglutinative and synthetic
• SVO primary word order
• No adjectives or adverbs as separate parts of speech
• Written in Latin alphabet since 1991, but formerly written in Cyrillic and Greek
• generally head-final in synthetic constructions, head-initial in analytic constructions

vuttani

tani vutù

these are two different ways to say "a fast man" - note that when the word meaning "swiftness" (vut) is agglutinated to the word for man (tan), it comes at the front, while when it appears separately as a comitative noun it comes after

head-final synthetic

head-initial analytic

II. Phonology, Phonotacics, and Orthography

ini deval peca

in-i dev-al pe-c-a

1P-NOM dwell-PRS.R below-3P-LOC

idiom that means "I am required to care about this" -

literally "I dwell below it"

Ketoshaya has a simple consonant inventory

Fun Fact: [c] and [ɟ] merged only in the 19th century, late enough that there are sound recordings of Ketoshaya speakers with phonemic [ɟ]

Ketoshaya has an even simpler 8-vowel system

Fun Fact: the consonants written with a grave accent - [ɔ] [ʌ] and [ɛ] - were the result of a sound change called the "Great Lowering"

The old Cyrillic orthography

flag of the Ketoshan Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR)

*see Appendix for full rules about writing [c] [ɾ] and [r] in Cyrillic

Phonotactics

• No vowels next to each other, ever, even across syllables
• By default, when agglutination would break this rule an epenthetic [j] is added to the start of the second syllable, though lexically some roots and affixes use a different consonant for this rule

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• Consonant clusters can only occur in syllable onset

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• Only valid consonant clusters are stop/fricative/nasal + liquid or semivowel

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• Valid syllable shapes
• V
• CV
• CCV
• VC
• CVC
• CCVC

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Stress is based on syllable weight

To determine where stress falls in a word:

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1. Look at the first two syllables
2. If any of the first two syllables have a consonant coda, stress the first such syllable
3. If none of the first two syllables have a consonant coda, stress the first syllable of the word

III. Nouns

diya revabotsani Azèrbayzhanan Ayasatanùn

dija ɾev-abot-san-i azɛɾbajʒan-an ajasatan-ʌn

NEG every-problem-PL-NOM Azerbaijan-GEN Armenia-CAUS

idiom meaning "sometimes you cause your own problems" -

literally "not all of Azerbaijan's problems are caused by Armenia"

Nouns inflect via suffixes for definiteness, number, nominal tense, case, and deixis

Definiteness and number markers have long and short forms: the long form is used when it is the last suffix before the case marker

• tanpimi (tan-pim-i) - "the man
• tanpisani (tan-pi-san-i) - "the men"
• tanpisacimi (tan-pi-sa-cim-i) - "the future men"

Nouns are obligatorily marked for one of 9 cases

Prepositions are bound to the front of nouns as prefixes

Prepositions can have very different meanings depending on the case of the noun they are attached to

dar - in front of (place), after (time)

• dartana (dar-tan-a) - "in front of a man"
• Darkrisitòsa (dar-Krisitòs-a) - "before Christ"

Many prepositions have long and short forms - the short forms are used when the noun it attaches to begins with a consonant

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zha(bar) - into, through

zhabayeza (zha-bajez-a) - "into a forest"

zhabaripirròga (zhabar-ipirrò-ga) - "into the sky"

The Nominative Case (NOM)

The Accusative Case (ACC)

The Dative Case (DAT)

The Genitive Case (GEN)

The Renominative Case (RNOM)

The Locative Case (LOC)

The Locative Case (LOC)

The Causal Case (CAUS)

The Instrumental Case (INS)

The Comitative Case (COM)

Using ka(gay)- and toz-

ka(gay)- the weakening preposition

markusi kagayònyatùma

Markus [is] sort of of using an onion

markusi kalukasù

Markus [is] kind of with Lukas

maɾkus-i ka- lukas-ʌ

Markus-NOM kinda-Lukas-COM

maɾkus-i kagaj-ɔnjat-ʌma

Markus-NOM kinda-hammer-INS

toz- dramatic permanence

lyenini insanù, lyenini tozinsanù

Lenin [is] with us, Lenin [is] with us forever

èyroyi tozvadarrotùma

the sun [is] using Hydrogen forever

ljenin-i in-san-ʌ ljenin-i toz-in-san-ʌ

Lenin-NOM 1P-PL-COM Lenin-NOM forever-1P-PL-COM

ɛjɾo-ji toz-vadarot-ʌma

sun-NOM forever-Hydrogen-INS

Pronouns

Pronouns are treated just like other nouns and can take all of the usual nominal markers

IV. Verbs

ci èshèyal vonina limina minina

c-i ɛʃɛ-jal von-ina lim-ina min-ina

3P-NOM feel-PRS.R hotness-ACC lukewarmness-ACC coldness-ACC

idiom meaning "they're inconsistent" -

literally "they feel hotness, lukewarmness, and coldness"

Verbs inflect for Tense, Aspect, Reflexiveness, and both Primary and Secondary Mood

Secondary moods and their function

Serial verb constructions

Verbs with the same subject and object (or intransitive verbs with the same subject) can occur in serial constructions.

ini lamasbal shunbal yanenbal

I came, I saw, I conquered

in-i lamas-bal ʃun-bal janen-bal

1P-NOM come-PST.R see-PST.R win-PST.R

lukasi trotbal zayakbal krayina

Lucas stalked and killed a deer

lukas-i tɾot-bal zajak-bal kɾaj-ina

Lucas-NOM stalk-PST.R kill-PST.R deer-ACC

ini micitdocel Zinokotoshshina, ini mokasnocel pagasnocel tozòdavitsana

If I were to travel to Chechnya, I would climb and camp in the mountains

in-i micit-do-cel zi-nokotoʃ-ʃin-a in-i mokas-no-cel pagas-no-cel tozɔ-davit-san-a

1P-NOM travel-HYP-FUT.IRR to-Chechen-land-LOC 1P-NOM climb-COND-FUT.IRR camp-COND-FUT.IRR among-mountain-PL-LOC

Verb compounding

Verb + Verb Compounds

usually productive; results in a new verb combining the meanings of the two

• kram, to eat + vag, to want = kramvag to be hungry (want to eat)

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Noun + Verb Compounds

usually productive; typically means to do that action to that noun

• rini, meat + kram, to eat = rinikram, to eat meat
• but some have specific lexical meanings: mayinè is combination of may, cat, and inè, to speak, but it means to whine, to complain, not to speak to/for a cat.

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Preposition + Verb Compounds

not productive today, but some verbs were derived this way

• timicit, to carry, comes from micit, to travel, + the preposition ti(y)-

Multiplicity of action

Attaching a number in front of a verb means the verb is being done that many times

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• ùmi, two + kene, to hear = ùmikene, to hear twice

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But la (three) and zas (ten) have idiomatic meaning

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• la + a verb could mean to do that verb exactly three times, but could also just mean to do it a few times.
• zas + a verb means to be a habitual doer of that verb

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zas, ten + èrrè, to love = zasèrrè, to be a lothario

zas, ten + gadarr, to break, to fracture = zasgadarr, to pulverize, to crush

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Transformative prefixes

Auxiliary verbs (prefixed)

Auxiliary verbs (non-prefixed)

These auxiliary verbs take the gerund of the main verb (in the accusative) as a direct object.

If there is another direct object, it is place in the base locative.

V. Turning Nouns into Verbs and Verbs into Nouns

azi inènadal sakarratvelòyayina

az-i inɛ-nad-al sakaratvelɔ-jaj-ina

2P-NOM speak-IPFV-PRS.R Georgia-language-ACC

idiom meaning "I don't understand you" -

literally "you're speaking Georgian"

Common nominalizing suffixes for verbs

Theoretically any noun suffixed to a verb nominalizes it. But here are common ones.

Gerunds: the verbnouns

The prefix varr- can attach to a verb and turn it into a gerund. Gerunds are treated as nouns gramatically and thus are subject to obligatory case marking and can take all other noun markings.

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varr- can attach to the unmarked lexical forms of verbs, or it can attach to verbs that have taken verbal markings for TAMs. Thus, gerunds are nouns that can have verbal TAM and can have a mix of nominal and verbal markings.

varrkrami

varrkramèdbalùn

"eating (NOM)"

"because of past habitual eating"

var-kɾam-i

GER-eat-NOM

var-kɾam-ɛd-bal-ʌn

GER-eat-HAB-PST.R-CAUS

Gerunds vs -conès

The suffix -conès turns a verb into a noun meaning an instance of that action. This is similar to a gerund, but tends to imply just an isolated instance of that act versus the broader phenomenon

simoni rekal varrinèyalina

Simon fears speaking

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simon-i ɾek-al var-inɛ-jal-ina

Simon-NOM fear-PRS.R GER-speak-PRS.R-ACC

inèconèspimi lazarran zirròmèmèbal mansanina

Lazarr's speaking offended women

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inɛ-conɛs-pim-i lazar-an zir-ɔm-ɛmɛ-bal man-san-ina

speak-act-DEF-NOM Lazarr-GEN CAUS-STAT-anger-PST.R woman-PL-ACC

Stative verbs

Any noun can be made into a stative verb, but the exact shade of meaning can differ depending on the type of noun.

If the noun is a pseudo-adjective or state, it means to be in that state

Otherwise, it can mean to behave like the noun in question

yoni òmtimal

John is tall

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jon-i ɔm-tim-al

John STAT-height-PRS.R

yoni òmlukasèdbal

John used to act like Lukas

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jon-i ɔm-lukas-ɛd-bal

John STAT-lukas-HAB-PST.R

VI. Adjectival and Adverbial Constructions

kerracèl cina varzhyodana azan

kerr-ac-ɛl c-ina vaɾ-ʒjod-ana az-an

have-IMP-PRS.R 3P-ACC according to-manner-DAT 2P-GEN

"have it your way" -

former Burger King slogan

"No Adjectives" and "No Adverbs"

Ketoshaya does not have adjectives and adverbs as distinct parts of speech. Instead, adjectival and adverbial functions are expressed primarily via nouns.

Earlier forms of Ketoshaya had adjectives and adverbs, but these were outcompeted by the nominal and verbal forms in this section. These former adjectives and adverbs remain in Ketoshaya today as pseudo-adjectives, which are treated as nouns gramatically and have meanings like "sadness", "wideness", "fame", etc.

Adjective Strategy 1: Stative Verbs

bayi òmsharral òmzeyal

baj-i ɔm-ʃar-al ɔm-zej-al

dog-NOM STAT-brown-PRS.R STAT-sadness-PRS.R

• By introducing verbs, you introduce everything they bring: aspect, primary mood, secondary mood, etc.

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• That could be great for expressing complex meanings but could also overly complicate your sentence

Adjective Strategy 2: Agglutination

sharrzeybayi

ʃar-zej-bay-i

brown-sadness-dog-NOM

• Easy, but ambiguous - what is a "sadness-dog" exactly - a dog that is sad? A dog that brings sadness but is not necessarily sad? A dog that hunts sadness and thus brings happiness?

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• Not in this case, but in many cases specific word compounds in Ketoshaya have specific and narrow lexical meanings - e.g., the compound "frog-speech" exclusively means "boastful, prideful speech" when logically it could also mean speech about frogs, or things literally said by frogs)

Adjective Strategy 3: The comitative case

bayi sharrù zeyù

bay-i ʃar-ʌ zej-ʌ

dog-NOM brown-COM sadness-COM

• Ketoshaya prefers to use this strategy - the comitative case is probably used this way more than it is used to say that some noun is (physically) with some other noun - surnames (Sharrùslayù)

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• It's more precise than agglutination and a bit less complex than stative verbs

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• Inherently contrasts with other noun cases (genitive, instrumental, causitive, etc.)

Adverb Strategy 1: Agglutination

bayi sharrù zeypenerral

baj-i ʃar-ʌ zej-pener-al

dog-NOM brown-COM sadness-sit-PRS.R

• This is not very common - agglutinating nouns to the front of verbs is more commonly used to derive new verbs

Adverb Strategy 2: Noun Cases

bayi sharrù penerral zeyù

bayi sharrù penerral zeya

bayi sharrù penerral zeyùma

baj-i ʃar-ʌ pener-al zej-ʌ

dog-NOM brown-COM sit-PRS.R sadness-COM

baj-i ʃar-ʌ pener-al zej-a

dog-NOM brown-COM sit-PRS.R sadness-LOC

baj-i ʃar-ʌ pener-al zej-ʌma

dog-NOM brown-COM sit-PRS.R sadness-INST

The Great Chain of Adverbial Noun Cases

The Instrumental, Locative, and Comitative cases can all be used to create adverbial phrases that translate to something like “a brown dog sat sadly”. But the connotation differs.

VII. Subordination

turrukdamorri

turuk-damor-i

Turk-rest-NOM

"Friday" - literally "Turk's Rest"

Ketoshaya has two subordinate clause markers

sha and shen always follow the word they modify - other words are moved around

baypimi lukasan → lukasan baypimi sha òmnoshal

normally the genitive "lukasan" would follow the noun it modifies, but here it preceeds the noun to allow a relative clause to follow

Ketoshaya does pronoun retention in relative clauses

The relative clause must contain a pronoun that referrs to the noun being modified, which is declined for the head noun's role in the relative clause

markus èrrèyal baypimina sha ci èmabbal lukasina

Markus loves the dog that bit Lukas

literally "Markus loves the dog that it bit Lukas"

One exception: you do not need a pronoun in the relative clause if BOTH:

(1) the noun being modified is in the nominative in the main clause; AND

(2) the noun being modified is the subject of the relative clause

baypimi sha òmnoshal

the dog that is good

For more complex adverbial clauses, Ketoshaya uses relative clauses with "anchor nouns"

lukasi èvèbal zokeza shen baypimi can zarrabbal ca

Lukas cried when his dog died

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lukas-i ɛvɛ-bal zo-kez-a ʃen baj-pim-i c-an zarab-bal c-a

Lukas-NOM cry-PST.R at-moment-LOC REL dog-DEF-NOM 3P-GEN die-PST.R 3P-LOC

in this example, we use a locative noun and a relative clause to create an adverbial clause of time

Notice our friend pronoun retention showing up at the end

VIII. Questions, Negation, and Discourse Markers

ini zhunal, ègònùntyan ini òmal

in-i ʒun-al ɛgɔn-ʌn-tjan in-i ɔm-al

1P-NOM think-PRS.R reason-CAUS-PROX 1P-NOM exist-PRS.R

"I think therefore I am" - Rene Descartes

Yes/no questions using deyò

Putting the word deyò at the front of a clause turns it into a yes/no question.

deyò lazarri èvèbal varzhyodana besetan?

Did Lazarr cry like a widow?

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dejɔ lazar-i ɛvɛ-bal vaɾ-ʒjod-ana beset-an

Q Lazarr-NOM cry-PST.R per-manner-DAT widow-GEN

deyò kartoshakpisani Irlanadan?

Are the potatoes from Ireland?

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dejɔ kartoʃak-pi-san-i iɾlanad-an

Q potato-DEF-PL-NOM Ireland-GEN

Unknown qualities using deci-

The noun deci inflects for all nine cases and serves as a universal question word for meanings like "who", "whom", "why", etc.

deciti ènètmezhinbal?

Who farted?

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deci-ti ɛnɛt-meʒin-bal

what-NOM fart-make-PST.R

Lukasi ùmèbal deciyùn

Why did Lukas sing?

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lukas-i ʌmɛ-bal deci-jʌn

Lukas-NOM sing-PST.R what-CAUS

ci deciyòm?

What is it?

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c-i deci-jɔm

3P-NOM what-RNOM

Simoni gadarrbal decikunazina?

Which finger did Simon break?

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simon-i gadar-bal deci-kunaz-ina

Simon-NOM break-PST.R what-finger-ACC

deciyòm - meaning "what is it" - is a common filler or placeholder word

Negating clauses with diya

Placing diya at the front of a clause negates the entire clause

diya ùnùspisabimi krambal batalapisanina, krakivpilimi krambal cisanina!

The former cows did not eat the flowers, the current pig ate them!

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dija ʌnʌs-pi-sa-bim-i kɾam-bal balata-pi-san-ina kɾakiv-pi-lim-i kɾam-bal ci-san-ina

NEG cow-DEF-PL-PST-NOM eat-PST.R flower-DEF-PL-ACC pig-DEF-PRS.-NOM eat-PST.R 3P-PL-ACC

diya gusèvi mabesvacadèl kasinakan

A lender should not be asking that

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dija gusɛv-i mabes-vac-ad-ɛl kas-ina-kan

NEG lender-NOM ask-JUS-IPFV-PRS.IRR thing-ACC-DIST

Negating individual words with da(y)-

a noun without a preposition can be negated with the prefix da(y)-

markusi dalukasù

Markus [is] not with Lukas

maɾkus-i da-lukas-ʌ

Markus-NOM NEG-Lukas-COM

once a noun takes a preposition, it can only be negated with diya

Jakobi avzayakbal diya varsoshùna

Jakob was killed, not by an arrow

jakob-i av-zajak-bal dija vaɾ-soʃ-ʌna

Jakob-NOM PASS-kill-PST.R NEG by-arrow-INS

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Narration markers mek and sha mek

the marker mek (usually translated "so") begins a narration. subsequent parts of that same narration are introduced with sha mek (usually translated "and so")

mek subani lamasbal Zirùyèlesa. sha mek ci vanebal lisùma sanzhakpiminashyan cisanan!

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So a dragon went to Wales. And so, he really liked their flag way over there!

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mek suban-i lamas-bal ziɾ-ʌjɛles-a ʃa mek c-i vane-bal lis-ʌma

so dragon-NOM go-PST.R to-Wales-LOC and so 3P-NOM like-PST.R bigness-INST

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sanʒak-pim-ina-ʃjan ci-san-an

flag-DEF-ACC-FAR.DIST 3P-PL-GEN

Conjunctions

Ketoshaya does not usually require yen to join serial verbs or to join nouns of the same case. In these cases, yen is more accurately translated as "and also" rather than as "and"

simoni lazarri ùmèbal

Simon and Lazarr sang

simoni yen lazarri ùmèbal

Simon and also Lazarr sang

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(perhaps it is surprising that both sang)

IX. Numbers

kabasèyrodavit yen kabasèyroyonog

kabas-ɛjɾo-davit jen kabas-ɛjɾo-jonog

old-sun-mountain and old-sun-hill

"Evening Mountain" and "Evening Hill" - the two traditional evening meals eaten in Eastern Ketosh

Ketoshaya uses base 10

1 - èdè

2 - ùmi

3- la

4 - kot

5 - sas

6 - èpò

7 - ùmò

8 - na

9 - mot

10 - zas

Notice how numerals that are counted on the same finger of opposite hands sound similar to each other? èdè/èpò, la/na, kot/mot, etc?

"zero" is sufurr, a borrowing from Arabic via Persian

Beyond 10, numbers divisible by 5 often have special words

10 - zas

11 - zas yen èdè

12 - zas yen ùmi

13 - zas yen la

14 - zas yen kot

15 - lasas

16 - zas yen èpò

17 - zas yen ùmò

18 - zas yen na

19 - zas yen mot

20 - ùmizas

21 - ùmizas yen ède

22 - ùmizas yen ùmi

23 - ùmizas yen la

24 - ùmizas yen kot

25 - sasas

26 - ùmizas yen èpò

27 - ùmizas yen ùmò

28 - ùmizas yen na

29 - ùmizas yen mot

Note that, e.g., 12 is "ten and two" and 16 is "ten and six", while 15 is "three five" and 25 is derived from "five five"

Three strategies for cardinal numbers

Note how when they are declined or conjugated, numbers like "zas yen ùmi" (twelve) combine into a single word

Ordinal numbers are done with irrealis stative verbs. Yes really.

kashutkarrali òmlayèl

King Charles the Third

kaʃut-karal-i ɔm-la-jɛl

king-charles-NOM STAT-three-PRS.IRR

insani sapadbal sebopimina shen ci òmlayèl

We were reading the third chapter

in-san-i sap-ad-bal sebo-pim-ina ʃen c-i ɔm-la-jɛl

1P-PL-NOM read-IPFV-PST.R head-DEF-ACC REL 3P-NOM STAT-three-PRS.IRR

the base irrealis with no secondary mood marker is used for this

past tense would mean "was once the third, is no more" future tense would mean "will be the third"

Add -c to any numeral to make it a pronoun

sufurruci èrrèyal gripina

nobody loves influenza

sufur-uc-i ɛrɛ-jal gɾip-ina

zero-3P-NOM love-PRS.R influenza-ACC

ùmizasyenùmici pigosal cemolepina

twenty-two play soccer

ʌmi-zas-jen-ʌmi-c-i pigos-al cemo-lep-ina

two-ten-and-two-3P-NOM play-PRS.R foot-ball-ACC

X. Appendix

misùnùssan, ùmèshoymak, ceboshazhsan

mis-ʌnʌs-san ʌmɛ-ʃojmak cebo-ʃaʒ-san

little-cow-PL sing-storm wet-day-PL

The names of the months of March, April, May - literally "little cows", "sing-storm", and "wet days"

Irregular Verbs

Kinds of irregular verbs in Ketoshaya

44 distinct verbs are irregular in at least one of these five ways, or 11.73% of Ketoshaya's 375 documented verbs

How did these irregularities come to be?

azhù-suppletion

A long time ago, the verb azhù meant "to hope". It has been outcompeted by bazap which means both "to pray" and "to hope" - but azhù remains in some derived nouns and in some forms of two verbs:

• irrù (to do, to work) - this becomes azhù in the future tense
• vag, (to want) - this becomes azhù in the past tense (where it also displays the ù/ò-final irregularity)

Fun fact: other verbs derived from irrù or vag do NOT show this irregularity!

ù/ò-final

Any ù/ò at the end of a verb root turns into è in all past tense forms except the reflexive forms. The reflexive marker -zhi- uniquely blocks this change.

​

• irrù (to do, to work) - also has azhù-suppletion
• èmù (to know)
• èyò (to hate)
• èvò (to cry [intrans], to mourn [trans])
• asò (to learn)
• zirasò (to find out information)
• layasò (to verify, to confirm)

Fun fact: the archaic verb azhù, when it suppletes vag in the past tense, also displays this irregularity!

è-final

Any è at the end of a verb root turns into ù in all future tense forms except the reflexive forms. The reflexive marker -zhi- uniquely blocks this change.

​

• inè (to speak)
• èrrè (to love)
• avè (to open)
• srenavè (to rip open)
• ùmè (to sing)
• breninè (to prophesize)
• zhiloyinè (to brag)

• bayinè (to be loyal)
• payinè (to debate, to discuss)
• ètè (to feel an emotion)
• èshè (to feel a sensation)
• zasètè (to be hysterical)
• èbè (to thresh, to separate)

k/g final

In some verbs, k or g at the end of a verb root is palatalized to c when immediately followed by a front vowel (e or è).

​

• vag (to want) - also has azhù-suppletion and -ù/ò stem irregularity
• èrrèvag (to want romantically)
• prag (to burn)
• zayak (to kill)
• demek (to shatter)
• pogag (to aerate)
• desuk (to reap, to stop)
• ganok (to have sexual intercourse with, non-vulgar)
• nesok (to please)
• cesok (to doubt)

• anèk (to teach)
• yemek (to harm, to hurt)
• yenak (to happen, to occur)
• mesik (to choose)
• kamak (to mourn, to give up on)
• myak (to spin)
• vek (to clasp)
• zokavek (to hug)
• kunazvek (to pinch)
• shuk (to drop)

Not all k/g-final verbs show this irregularity. Some recent borrowings and verbs for crimes do not. This must be memorized lexically, alas!

sho-retention

A long time ago, the prefix sho- marked the discontinuous aspect. Today it has been outcompeted by an auxiliary verb form based on the verb irrù.

But these verbs also have sho- affixed to them in all past perfective forms.

• shun (to see)
• zhod (to smell)
• kene (to hear)
• zhun (to think)

Fun fact: other verbs derived from these verbs do NOT show this irregularity

Use these common words to describe people based on their features, emotions, and interests

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs (prefixed)

Prefixed auxiliary constructions (1/2)

ini daslamasbal dasshunbal dasyanenbal

I came [suddenly], I saw [suddenly], I conquered [suddenly]

​

in-i das-lamas-bal das-ʃun-bal das-janen-bal

1P-NOM MOM-come-PST.R MOM-see-PST.R MOM-win-PST.R

diya kuzhtankroyèni kanarrfrisbal, ci irrùfrisbal

Grandpa didn't fall multiple times, he fell [but not before or after]

​

dija kuʒ-tan-krojɛn-i kanar-fɾis-bal c-i irrʌ-fɾis-bal

NEG long-MASC-father-NOM ITER-fall-PST.R 3P-NOM DSC-fall-PST.R

Prefixed auxiliary constructions (2/2)

èsakakerrèvsani lemakramal, petakatucemèvsani bazapkramèl

wealth-havers start to eat, poverty-sufferers hope to eat

​

ɛsaka-kerɛv-san-i lema-kɾam-al petaka-tucemɛv-san-i bazap-kɾam-ɛl

wealth-haver-PL-NOM INCH-eat-PRS.R poverty-sufferer-PL-NOM VOL-eat-PST.IRR

guzègpimi ènakramcel: tosivèvpimi lasemzyinzayakcel ùnùsina

The lord shall eat: the farmer will be forced again to kill a cow

​

guzɛg-pim-i ɛna-kɾam-cel tosivɛv-pim-i lasem-zjin-zayak-cel ʌnʌs-ina

lord-DEF-NOM CMS-eat-FUT.IRR farmer-DEF-NOM RES-IDEB-kill-FUT.IRR cow-ACC

Auxiliary verbs (non-prefixed)

These auxiliary verbs take the gerund of the main verb (in the accusative) as a direct object.

If there is another direct object, it is place in the base locative.

Non-prefixed auxiliary constructions (½)

ini minadadèl varrkramkalina pitsaya zotizharrpima varlistansanùma

I am assuming there will be pizza-eating at the party by the boys

​

in-i minad-ad-ɛl var-kɾam-kal-ina pitsa-ja zo-tiʒar-pim-a vaɾ-lis-tan-san-ʌma

1P-NOM SUPP-IPFV-PRS.IRR GER-eat-FUT.R-ACC pizza-LOC at-party-DEF-LOC by-small-man-PL-INST

lukasi zhodèdbel varrlashèdbelina bonigana shodayanatbayeza

Lukas used to suspect there might have been sacrificing to Satan in the dark woods

​

lukas-i ʒod-ɛd-bel var-laʃ-ɛd-bel-ina bonig-ana ʃodaj-anat-bayez-a

Lukas-NOM INFR-HAB-PST.IRR GER-sacrifice-HAB-PST.IRR-ACC Satan-DAT in-dark-forest-LOC

Notice how the base locative is used for the direct object of the gerund and the instrumental is used for the agent

When used as an aux verb for the inferrential / speculative mood, zhod is always in the irrealis. Whether the gerund is irrealis or realis depends on the confidence of the suspicion. Here, Lukas was not entirely confident in his suspicion of Satanic rituals so we see the irrealis.

Non-prefixed auxiliary constructions (2/2)

yakobi kerrcel varrirrùkalina ègonùn shen ci òmpetakayal

Yakob will have to work because he is poor

​

jakob-i ker-cel var-irʌ-kal-ina ɛgɔn-ʌn ʃen c-i ɔm-petka-jal

Yakob-NOM DEB-FUT.IRR GER-work-FUT.R-ACC reason-CAUS REL 3P-NOM STAT-poverty-PRS.R

filipòsi sarreyal varrsapalina kolaksebopima

Filipòs just finished reading the book chapter

​

filipɔs-i sarej-al var-sap-al-ina kolak-sebo-pim-a

Filipos-NOM R.PFV-PRS.R GER-read-PRS.R-ACC book-head-DEF-LOC

Remember, the locative (with no preposition) serves as the accusative in these constructions

More Stuff About Nouns

Uses of the Dative (1)

Beneficiary of an action

ini norrobal adùkayina bayana - "I gave a bone to a dog"

​

ludvici vosbal ùmèyavina eliseyana - "Ludwig wrote a song for Elise"

​

Either of these dative nouns could have been used with the preposition var- (for, on behalf of, for the benefit of) but context makes this unnecessary.

in-i noro-bal adʌka-jina baj-ana

1P-NOM give-PST.R bone-ACC dog-DAT

ludvic-i vos-bal ʌmɛjav-ina elise-jana

Ludwig-NOM write-PST.R song-ACC elise-DAT

Uses of the Dative (2)

Vocative

Aciyòsmatayòsana kenevacèl bazapavina inan - "O Saint Matthew, hear my prayer"

​

aciyɔs-matajɔs-ana kene-vac-ɛl bazapav-ina in-an

saint-matthew-DAT hear-JUS-PRS.IRR prayer-ACC 1P-GEN

Generally, the vocative dative will be placed at the start of a sentence while the beneficiary dative will be placed after both the verb and the direct object - but a beneficiary dative could be placed at the start of a sentence for emphasis. Use context clues.

The vocative dative never takes a preposition, while the beneficiary dative can take var-

Uses of the Dative (3)

Topic of a sentence

payzhunavana markusan, ini èyòyal cina - "As for Markus's idea, I hate it"

​

zastolopazpisanana, kotoci dayamugù - "Concerning the ten apples, four are without worms"

zas-tolopaz-pi-san-ana kotoc-i da-jamu-gʌ

ten-apple-DEF-PL-DAT four-NOM NEG-worm-COM

​

paj-ʒunav-ana maɾkus-an in-i ɛjɔ-jal c-ina

about-idea-DAT Markus-GEN 1P-NOM hate-PRS.R 3P-ACC

This usually occurs at the start of a sentence and is followed by the comment. Generally this use of the dative will take the preposition pay- but speakers may omit this if they believe the context makes it obvious.

Uses of the Dative (4)

Topic of a book, film, conversation, etc.

filimpimi payrobotveshkazilèvana - "the movie is about a robot policeman"

​

cisani inèbal paymogayana sulukana - "they talked about war and peace"

​

filim-pim-i paj-ɾobot-veʃ-kazilɛv-ana

movie-DEF-NOM about-robot-law-defender-DAT

This use of the dative will almost always take the preposition pay-

ci-san-i inɛ-bal paj-moga-jana suluk-ana

3P-PL-NOM to speak about-war-DAT peace-DAT

​

Uses of the Dative (5)

Citation of authority, "in the name of"

varbreninèyèvpimana, insani òsètal bugikapusavinakan - "by order of the prophet, we ban that boogie sound"

​

diya azi tizirrùyal conèsinatyan varcenevalashakana - "you cannot do this, per the Geneva Convention"

​

​

vaɾ-bɾeninɛjɛv-pim-ana in-san-i ɔsɛt-al bugi-kapusav-ina-kan

on behalf of-prophet-DEF-DAT 1P-PL-NOM ban-PRS.R boogie-sound-ACC-DIST

This use of the dative will almost always take the preposition var-

dija az-i tiz-irʌ-jal conɛs-ina-tjan vaɾ-ceneva-laʃak-ana

NEG 2P-NOM can-do-PRS.R action-ACC-PROX according to-geneva-treaty-DAT

Uses of the Dative (6)

Expressing support, fandom

markusi varargentinayana - "Markus supports Argentina"

​

lukasi bolshevikshinana, lazarri itùsrishana - "Lukas supports Bolshevism, Lazarr supports the White Army"

​

​

​

maɾkus-i vaɾ-aɾgentina-jana

Markus-NOM for-Argentina-DAT

This use of the dative generally takes the preposition var- but speakers may omit this if they feel context makes it obvious.

lukas-i bolʃevik-ʃin-ana lazarr-i itʌ-ʃɾiʃ-ana

Lukas bolshevik-phenomenon-DAT Lazarr white-faction-DAT

Uses of the Dative (7)

Purpose

mateyòsi shrabal Varkrisitòsana, tomasi shrabal varlavuyana - "Matthias fights for Christ, Thomas fights for money"

​

leyayi irrùnadal varègonana sha ci kerral kramavina cenuyana can - "Leah is working for the purpose of having food for her family"

​

​

​

matejɔs-i ʃɾab-al vaɾ-kɾisitɔs-ana tomas-i ʃɾab-al vaɾ-lavu-jana

Matthias-NOM fight-PRS.R for-Christ-DAT Thomas-NOM fight-PRS.R for-money-DAT

This use of the dative generally takes the preposition var- but speakers may omit this if they feel context makes it obvious.

leja-ji irʌ-nad-al vaɾ-ɛgɔn-ana ʃa c-i ker-al kɾamav-ina cenu-jana c-an

Leah-NOM work-IPFV-PRS.R for-purpose-DAT that 1P-NOM have-PRS.R food-ACC family-DAT 3P-FEN

Using var + the instrumental case for composition

lukasi ètnosòm meshirrèdal idolonina varkapatùma

​

Lukas, a pagan, worships an idol made of wood

​

lukas-i ɛtnos-ɔm meʃir-ɛd-al idolon-ina vaɾ-kapat-ʌma

Lukas-NOM pagan-RNOM worship-HAB-PRS.R idol-ACC of-lumber-INST

firmayi insanan sokonkal zasbanaconèsùn varègònsanùma

​

our company will close because of a multiplication of reasons

​

fiɾma-ji in-san-an sokon-kal zasbana-conɛs-ʌn vaɾ-ɛgɔn-san-ʌma

company-NOM 1P-PL-GEN close-FUT.R multiply-action-CAUS of-reason-PL-INST

Reduplication

First syllable noun reduplication competes with and complements pseudo-adjectival affixes

kashuti

a king

​

liskashuti kakashuti

a great king a great king

​

liskakashuti

a really great king

srinmab

a blood-sucking insect (bug)

​

karressrinmab srinsrinmab

a bad bug a bad bug

​

karressrinsrinmab

a really bad blood-sucking insect

How first-syllable noun reduplication works with compound nouns

dagayi

a country

​

dadagayi

a great country

gusèvi

a bank

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gugusèvi

a great bank

dagagusèvi

a national bank

​

​

dadagagusèvi

a national bank of a great nation

​

​

dagagugusèvi

a great national bank

​

​

dadagagugusèvi

a great national bank of a great nation

​

​

First-syllable noun reduplication can be used in adjectival and adverbial noun phrases

bayi zeyù

a sad dog

​

baj-i zej-ʌ

dog-NOM sadness-COM

bayi zeyzeyù

a very sad dog

​

baj-i zej-zej-ʌ

dog-NOM AUG-sadness-COM

lukasi meyesal srefayù

Lukas dances skillfully

​

lukas-i mejes-al sɾefa-jʌ

Lukas-NOM dance-PRS.R skill-COM

lukasi meyesal sresrefayù

Lukas dances very skillfully

​

lukas-i mejes-al sɾe-sɾefa-jʌ

Lukas-NOM dance-PRS.R AUG-skill-COM

First syllable reduplication in verbs

Reduplicating the first syllable of a verb denotes a particularly intense example of that action.

markusi sokatbal lukasina

Markus praised Lucas

​

maɾkus-i sokat-bal lukas-ina

markus-NOM praise-PST.R lukas-ACC

markusi sosokatbal lukasina

Markus effusively praised Lucas

​

maɾkus-i so-sokat-bal lukas-ina

markus-NOM INT-praise-PST.R lukas-ACC

lazarri mabesbal tosivèvpimana

Markus asked the farmer

​

lazar-i mabes-bal tosivɛv-pim-ana

lazarr-NOM ask-PST.R farmer-DEF-DAT

lazarri mamabesbal tosivèvpimana

Markus grilled the farmer

​

​

lazar-i ma-mabes-bal tosivɛv-pim-ana

lazarr-NOM INT-ask-PST.R farmer-DEF-DAT

First syllable reduplication in nouns

Depending on context, reduplicating the first syllable of a noun is either augmentation or amelioration, denoting a particularly impressive or good instance of that noun

Moyisisi breninèyèvòm

Moses is a prophet

​

mojisis-i bɾen-inɛjɛv-ɔm

Moses-NOM god-speaker-RNOM

Moyisisi brenbreninèyèvòm

Moses is a great prophet

​

mojisis-i bɾen-bɾen-inɛjɛv-ɔm

Moses-NOM AUG-god-speaker-RNOM

yerroncukuli mayòm

Mr. Paws is a cat

​

jeron-cukul-i maj-ɔm

mister-paw-NOM cat-RNOM

yerroncukuli maymayòm

Mr. Paws is a good cat

​

jeron-cukul-i maj-maj-ɔm

mister-paw-NOM APPROB-cat-RNOM

Cyrillic

Using Cyrillic to write Ketoshaya (1/2)

[c] vs [k] and [g]

• [c] began as an allophone of both [k] and [g] before front vowels but became phonemic due to borrowings and contractions (once upon a time, [g] became [ɟ] before front vowels and the sound change that merged [ɟ] with [c] happened within living memory of the early 20th century)
• To determine whether <К> and <Г> in front of a vowel are actually [c], look to the following vowel: if the palatalized version is used, it's [c]
• To determine whether <К> and <Г> at the end of a word or at the end of a syllable followed by a consonant onset is actually [c], look for the soft sign
• In the instances where <К> and <Г> are [k] and [g] but come at the end of a syllable and are followed by a [j] onset, the hard sign is put next to them

Rhotics

• [r] began as an intervocalic and word-final allophone of [ɾ] but is now phonemic
• If you see <Р>, you can generally assume that it is [r] if it's intervocalic or at the end of a word and that it is [ɾ] otherwise
• If that <Р> actually represents intervocalic or word-final [ɾ], the soft symbol is put after it
• If that <Р> actually represents an [r] that is not intervocalic or word final, the hard symbol is put after it

Using Cyrillic to write Ketoshaya (2/2)

Consonant + [j] clusters

• Most consonants, with the notable exceptions of [k] and [g], can be followed by [j] as part of a consonant cluster
• These clusters are written by using the palatalized version of the following vowel - there's always a vowel after them as they can ONLY occur at the onset of a syllable

Coda Consonant + following syllable begins with [j]

• Since there are no palatalized consonants to distinguish, you do not need to put the hard sign next to such a
• consonant unless the rules above otherwise say you have to
• Because consonant + [j] clusters can only happen as an onset, there's no real risk of confusing this with a consonant + [j] cluster

Cyrillic example sentences (1/2)

Маркуси шувбал водкаїна Товаришлазаргенаяна

Markus drank vodka for Comrade Lazarr's birthday

​

maɾkus-i ʃuv-bal vodka-jina tovariʃ-lazar-cena-jana

Markus-NOM drink-PST.R vodka-ACC comrade-lazar-birthday-DAT

Лукаси ѣрѣял о̆сиваїна кян

Lukas loves his horse

​

lukas-i ɛrɛ-jal ɔsiva-jina c-an

Lucas-NOM love-PRS.R horse-ACC 3P-GEN

Cyrillic example sentences (2/2)

Матаёси зиръкрамбал ѣкѣдѣвпимина

Matayòs caused the accused preson to eat

​

matajɔs-i zir-kɾam-bal ɛcɛdɛv-pim-ina

Matthew-NOM CAUS-eat-PST.R accused-DEF-ACC

колакѣйпими венү рэказү Ленинан

the library gloriously [bears the] name of Lenin

​

kolac-ɛj-pim-i vjen-ʌ rekaz-ʌ ljenin-an

book-place-DEF-NOM name-COM glory-COM Lenin-GEN

Airports and Air Travel

* èzarr can mean to drive a car, to pilot a plane, or to ride a horse or bicycle. remeyèzarr unambiguously means to pilot a plane

remebrigad

flight crew

kapitan

captain

zomarrferrik

first officer

remeyèsatèv

flight attendant

remeyèzarrèv

pilot

remeyèzarrèv

pilot

Example sentences

kani tebemòm shen ci òmzasyenmotèl. azi kerrèl varrvevina zitebema D-jòm

​

This is Gate 19. You must go to Gate D.

​

kan-i tebem-ɔm ʃen ɔm-zas-jen-mot-ɛl az-i ker-ɛl var-vev-ina zi-tebem-a D-jɔm

here-NOM gate-RNOM REL STAT-10-and-9-PRS.IRR 2P-NOM have-PRS.IRR GER-go-ACC to-gate-LOC de-RNOM

diya lukasi shunbal Portogalina shodayèyrobimakan zu desukconèspimùn èzarrèvsanan

​

Lukas didn't see Portugal during that year because of a pilots strike

​

dija lukas-i ʃun-bal poɾtogal-ina ʃodaj-ɛjɾo-bim-a-kan zu desuk-conɛs-pim-ʌn ɛzarɛv-san-an

NEG Lukas-NOM see-PST.R Portugal-ACC during-sun-PST-LOC-DIST yes stop-action-DEF-CAUS driver-PL-GEN

Example sentences

remeyèsatèvsani ùmilamasadal zhibrigadkabinaya

​

The flight attendants are returning to the cockpit

​

ɾeme-jɛsatɛv-san-i ʌmi-lamas-ad-al ʒi-bɾigad-kabina-ja

flight-server-PL-NOM 2-come-IPFV-PRS.R into-team-cabin-LOC

kotarrkazilèvpimi Rossiyan lidetbal pasporrotina inan! diya ci norrokal cina zirina!

​

The Russian customs official took my passport! He will not give it to me!

​

kotar-kazilɛv-pim-i ɾossij-an lidet-bal pasporot-ina in-an dija c-i noro-kal c-ina ziɾ-in-a

trade-protector-DEF-NOM Russia-GEN take-PST.R passport-ACC 1P-GEN NEG 3P-NOM give-FUT.R 3P-ACC to-1P-LOC

Example sentences

deyò mrasèvi zoremeradaya? mrasèvi sha inèyal abkazayina

​

Is there a doctor on the plane? A doctor who speaks Abkhaz.

​

dejɔ mɾasɛv-i zo-ɾeme-rada-ja mɾasɛv-i ʃa inɛ-jal abkaz-aj-ina

Q doctor-NOM on-flight-machine-LOC doctor-NOM REL speak-PRS.R Abkhaz-language-ACC

kusi, ronislamasacèl inina zhidamorrèypima. deyò azi shunal shen "bayanèbèyavi" avvosal zobyileta inan?

​

Servant, admit me into the lounge. Do you see that "first class" is written on my ticket?

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kus-i ɾonislamas-ac-ɛl in-ina ʒi-damor-ɛj-pim-a dejɔ az-i ʃun-al ʃen bayan-ɛnɛjav-i

servant-NOM admit-IMP-PRS.IRR 1P-ACC into-rest-place-DEF-LOC Q 2P-NOM see-PRS.R ADV luxury-division-NOM

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av-vos-al zo-bjilet-a in-an

PASS-write-PRS.R on-ticket-LOC 1P-GEN

Example sentences

zomarrferrikpimi remeradayan sha ci frisbal, ci kerrbal kotzecesremetonashsanina

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The first officer of the plane that crashed had four thousand flight hours

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zomar-ferik-pim-i ɾeme-rada-jan ʃa c-i fɾis-bal c-i ker-bal

foremost-officer-DEF-NOM flight-machine-GEN REL 3P-NOM fall-PST.R 3P-NOM have-PST-R

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kot-zeces-ɾeme-tonaʃ-san-ina

four-thousand-flight-hour-PL-ACC

liszeyùma, insani zhabarinè shen remeconèsi òmsetesyenzasèl frisbal kusconèsù revmicitèvsanan revbrigadsanan

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With great sadness, we announce that Flight 110 has crashed with the loss of all passengers and all crew

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lis-zej-ʌma in-san-i ʒabaɾinɛ ʃen ɾeme-conɛs-i ɔm-setes-jen-zas-ɛl fɾis-bal kus-conɛs-ʌ

great-sadness-INST 1P-PL-NOM announce ADV flight-act-NOM STAT-100-and-10-PRS.IRR fall-PST.R lose-action-COM

ɾev-micitɛv-san-an ɾev-bɾigad-san-an

all-traveler-PL-GEN all-crew-PL-GEN

Politics and Ideology

The political spectrum

kamaztin

kamaz-tin

center-movement

venbimigtin

ven-bimig-tin

right-side-movement

zamventin

zam-ven-tin

far away-right-movement

zenbimigtin

zen-bimig-tin

left-side-movement

zamzentin

zam-zen-tin

far away-left-movement

dumanventin

duman-ven-tin

nearby-right-movement

dumanzentin

duman-zen-tin

nearby-left-movement

The suffix -tin denotes a movement or ideology

Forms of government: who has the sazum ?

Add the suffix -tin to create the ideology that supports that form of government

kashutsazumtin = monarchism

Political parties and factions

The formal word for "political party" is furka [fuɾka]. The Greek borrowing òmò [ɔmɔ] meaning "union" is also common in political party names, especially parties that originated as coalitions of different ideological or ethnic groups. This term is never used to describe a labor union as in English.

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You may also hear srish [sɾiʃ] which means "faction" - this word has a somewhat negative connotation and few movements self-identify as a srish.

Dagafurkayi Èknosanan (DFÈ)

National People's Party

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daga-fuɾka-ji ɛkno-san-an

nation-party-NOM person-PL-GEN

Tefratòmòyi Ketoshan (TÒK)

Civic Union of Ketosh

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tefɾat-ɔmɔ-ji ketoʃ-an

civic-union-NOM Ketosh-GEN

Tefratèknosazùmi (TÈS)

Social Democracy

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tefɾat-ɛkno-sazum-i

social-person-power-NOM

Soyètsani Ùtùkonùlan (SÙK)

Black Eagle Brotherhood

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sojɛt-san-i ʌtʌ-konʌl-an

sibling-PL-NOM black-eagle-GEN

Komunafurkayi Ketoshan (KFK)

Communist Party of Ketosh

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komuna-fuɾka-ji ketoʃ-an

communism-party-NOM Ketosh-GEN

Òmòyi Rossiysanan Ketosha (ÒRK)

Union of Russians in Ketosh

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ɔmɔ-ji ɾossij-san-an ketoʃ-a

union-NOM russian-PL-GEN Ketosh-LOC

Pro- and anti-

The prepositions zi(r)- towards and vush(èr)- away from are used to describe stances for or against particular ideas, places, or people.

ziseboktin

Pro-Westernism

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zi-sebok-tin

towards-west-movement

zirayasatantin

Pro-Armenianism

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ziɾ-ajasatan-tin

towards-Armenia-movement

vushtefratkuzh

Anti-Social Distancing

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vuʃ-tefɾat-kuʒ

away from-social-distance

vushèrèklissazum

Anti-theocracy

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vuʃɛɾ-ɛklis-sazum

awasy from-church-power

Talking about support

Example sentences

nakaszhunavkotanpimi can banayal vosavpisanina Schmittan yen Trotskyan!

His new ideology synthesizes the writings of Schmitt and Trotsky!

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nakas-ʒunav-kotan-pim-i c-an bana-jal vosav-pi-san-ina ʃimit-an jen tɾotsik-an

new-thought-camp-DEF-NOM 3P-GEN add-PRS.R writing-DEF-PL-ACC Schmitt-GEN and Trotsky-GEN

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Tomasi Sharrùslayù marbavanèvòm zirossiytinan paytankroyènana can

Tomas Sharrùslayù is less of a supporter of pro-Russianism in comparison to his father

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tomas-i ʃar-ʌslaj-ʌ maɾ-bavanɛv-ɔm zi-ɾossij-tin-an paj-tan-kɾojɛn-ana c-an

Thomas brown-hair-COM less-supporter-RNOM towards-Russia-movement-GEN regarding-MASC-parent-DAT 3P-GEN

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deyò simoni mesikbal TÈSina? yod ci tanòm nakasèlèftinan! deyò gusavsanùn can?

Simon voted for the TÈS? But he's a man of neoliberalism! [Is it] because of his debts?

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dejɔ simon-i mesik-bal TÈS-ina jod c-i tan-ɔm nakas-ɛlɛf-tin-an dejɔ gusav-san-ʌn c-an

Q simon-NOM choose-PST.R TES-ACC but 3P-NOM man-RNOM new-freedom-movement-GEN Q loan-PL-CAUS 3P-GEN