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The Industrial Revolution

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Opening Questions

Have you ever taken the lead in something? Started something you were proud of?
Any ideas for a new invention?
Are you opposed to technology in any way? Would you have become a Luddite during this time?
Utilitarianism is defined as doing the most amount of good for the most amount of people. Do you believe in this principle? Why? What examples are there?
Which of the following social sciences is your favorite?

Economics
Politics
History
Archaeology
Anthropology
Sociology
Psychology

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Britain Takes the Lead

The Industrial Revolution was said to be started in Great Britain.
Why?
What advantages did they have?

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Britain Takes the Lead

Great Britain’s advantages:

Factors of Production:

LAND: Plentiful iron and coal
A navigable river system
Many harbors
Colonies (raw materials and bought finished goods)
CAPITAL: Tools, machinery, equipment, and inventory.
Money
LABOR: Large supply fueled by the growth in population and migration into cities.
A strong navy.

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Agricultural Revolution:�The Enclosure Movement

What was it?

Who benefited?

The enclosure division of the town of Thetford, England around 1760

The Enclosure Acts curtailed access to public lands, allowing the landed gentry to better organize and keep track of crops, land, and animals. Landowners also enclosed their own territory to deny access to peasant farmers. Several methods of enclosure proved popular, including growing hedges or putting up stone walls or wooden fences. The former method was particularly popular in Britain’s Lowlands region. The movement began in Britain, having the biggest effect on the Midlands, East Anglia, and Central England. It spread to many other European countries, including Russia, Hungary, Germany, France, and Denmark. Although dating to the medieval era, enclosure was particularly common throughout the late 17^th, 18^th, and early 19^th centuries.

The Pros: Many farmers benefited from the Enclosure Movement, which led to more productive methods of farming and an increase in food production. Small, unproductive farms went out of business, ceding their land to larger, economically-sound farms. Poor farmers who had been making no profits were able to work on large farms to support their families.

The Cons: The Enclosure Movement was a practical strategy for organizing land among wealthy landowners, but it adversely impacted peasant farmers, who struggled with poverty and lack of adequate work. Many poor farmers were forced to give up their parcels to wealthy landowners and move to cities in search of work. Peasant families holding land by custom were generally unable to produce legal documents proving their ownership. Accustomed to using the public lands to obtain firewood, fruit, nuts and "pig fodder,” a tradition sometimes known as “gleaning rights,” this access no longer existed.

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Agricultural Revolution:�The Enclosure Movement

In the second half of the 17^th century, the English gentry (landowners) passed the Enclosure Acts, prohibiting peasants’ access to common lands.

The enclosure division of the town of Thetford, England around 1760

The Enclosure Acts curtailed access to public lands, allowing the landed gentry to better organize and keep track of crops, land, and animals. Landowners also enclosed their own territory to deny access to peasant farmers. Several methods of enclosure proved popular, including growing hedges or putting up stone walls or wooden fences. The former method was particularly popular in Britain’s Lowlands region. The movement began in Britain, having the biggest effect on the Midlands, East Anglia, and Central England. It spread to many other European countries, including Russia, Hungary, Germany, France, and Denmark. Although dating to the medieval era, enclosure was particularly common throughout the late 17^th, 18^th, and early 19^th centuries.

The Pros: Many farmers benefited from the Enclosure Movement, which led to more productive methods of farming and an increase in food production. Small, unproductive farms went out of business, ceding their land to larger, economically-sound farms. Poor farmers who had been making no profits were able to work on large farms to support their families.

The Cons: The Enclosure Movement was a practical strategy for organizing land among wealthy landowners, but it adversely impacted peasant farmers, who struggled with poverty and lack of adequate work. Many poor farmers were forced to give up their parcels to wealthy landowners and move to cities in search of work. Peasant families holding land by custom were generally unable to produce legal documents proving their ownership. Accustomed to using the public lands to obtain firewood, fruit, nuts and "pig fodder,” a tradition sometimes known as “gleaning rights,” this access no longer existed.

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Industrial Revolution

How did the following inventions make things in Europe more efficient?

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The Seed Drill

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Jethro Tull (1674–1741)

Inventor of the seed drill

The Seed drill made it possible to plant seeds in straight rows.

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Townshend’s �Four-Field System

crop rotation example

Charles “Turnip” Townshend

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Jethro Wood

Invented a plow with a replaceable blade.

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Jethro Wood

American
Did not need to buy a whole new plow.

Invented a plow with a replaceable blade.

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The Importance of Textiles

John Kay invented the flying shuttle

For hundreds of years, the production of cloth had required the weaver to pass a shuttle containing thread back and forth across the working area of the loom. This process required the use of both hands, and some types of weaving could only be done by two people sitting together at the loom.

In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, exponentially increasing the processing speed of cloth. One person could now operate the loom alone and could make many shapes and sizes of cloth. These changes doubled the speed of weaving.

The flying shuttle consisted of a shuttle box at each end of the loom. A long board called the shuttle race connected the two shuttle boxes. Using cords attached to the top of the loom, a weaver could single-handedly knock the shuttle back and forth from one shuttle box to the other, weaving the thread across the loom in the process.

By 1800, many people owned handlooms with a flying shuttle. There may have been as many as a quarter million looms in Britain by that time.

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The Spinning Jenny

James Hargreaves’s machine

1760’s

It could produce 8 times more thread than a single spinning wheel.

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Richard Arkwright’s Water Frame

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Richard Arkwright’s Water Frame

Powering the spinning jenny:

Horses
The water wheel
1780’s: Opened a spinning mill (put workers and waterpower under one roof)
Workers put in a certain number of hours each day for a fixed pay=factory system.

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The Coming of the Railroads:�The Steam Engine

Thomas Newcomen
The steam engine

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James Watt’s �Steam Engine

Increased efficiency
Steam replaced water as industry’s major power source.

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Stephenson’s Rocket

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The Liverpool and Manchester Railway

The first widely-used steam train was the Liverpool & Manchester Railway. The L&M incited a boom in railway building for the next 20 years. By 1854, every moderately-sized town in England was connected by rail.

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The Growth of the Railroads

Opening of the �Lancaster and Carlisle Railway

Newbiggin Bridge

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British Dominance

Rail lines in England

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Steam-Powered �Water Transport

In 1807, Robert Fulton attached a steam engine to a ship called the “Clermont.” The steam engine propelled the ship by making its paddle wheel turn.

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The Telegraph

Samuel F.B. Morse

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Steel

The Bessemer process

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Steel

Henry Bessemer-developed a cheaper and more efficient way to make steel

The Bessemer process

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Vulcanization

Charles Goodyear

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Vulcanization

American Charles Goodyear discovered how to make rubber less sticky.

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The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace

What was this event about?

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The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace

The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London was mounted to symbolize Great Britain’s economic, industrial, and military superiority.

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Electricity: New source of power�Michael Faraday: first dynamo (electric generator)

Thomas Edison

Created a bulb that glowed for 2 days before burning out.

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Communications

1870’s: Alexander Graham Bell: transmitted the human voice over a long distance by means of an electric current. (telephone)

Guglielmo Marconi: wireless telegraph

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Labor Conditions

Laborers often worked in dangerous and hazardous conditions. How so?

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Women: The Labor �Behind the Industry?

19^th-century women at work

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Child Labor: �Unlimited Hours

Factory children attend a Sunday school

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Child Labor: Dangers

“Scavengers” and “piecers”

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Child Labor: Punishment

How would kids be punished?

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Child Labor: Punishment

Malnourishment
Beatings
Runaways sent to prison

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Discipline in the new factories: Page 611

Why did these work rules appear to be necessary in industrialized settings but not in rural ones?
What impact did factories have on the lives of workers?
To what extent have such rules determined much of modern industrial life?

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Child Labor: Pages 626 and 627

Source 1: Why did the publication of this testimony lead to child labor laws?

Source 1: Why were they beaten?

Source 2: How might this account have been used to support protective legislation for women

Source 2: How were working conditions differerent in textile factories and mines

Source 2: Why would entrepreneurs permit such conditions and such treatment of kids?

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Reformers

Humanitarians (people who work to improve conditions of others) urged reforms.
Charles Dickens, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill
What did these three people reform/why are they considered humanitarians?

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Cultural Impact: Literature

Charles Dickens (1812–1870)

Used his novels to attack greedy employers

(David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol)

Depiction of a scene from Oliver Twist

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Jeremy Bentham �1748–1832

-Utilitarianism: “The greatest good for the most people” or “The greatest good over the least pain”

-Laws should be based on this principle.

-People should be educated

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John Stuart Mill

A government should work for the good of all its citizens.
Rejected economic systems that left workers trapped in poverty.
Called for the government to protect working children and improve housing and factory conditions.
Called for full democracy (equality of men and women)
On the Subjection of Women

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Child Labor: �Movements to Regulate

Factory Act of 1802: shortened hours and improved conditions for children in cotton mills. (ineffective, no means of enforcement)
Factory Act of 1833: applied it to all textile mills.
No kids under 9.
Between 9-13: no more than 8 hours, 6 days a week.
Older children: No more than 12 hours.

In 1833, the British government passed the Factory Act to improve conditions for child laborers in textile factories. The act stipulated the following:

No child under nine years of age was permitted to work.
Employers had to have a medical or age certificate for each child laborer.
Children between the ages of nine and thirteen could not work more than nine hours a day.
Children between 13 and 18 could not work more than 12 hours a day.
Children could not work at night.
Each child had to receive at least two hours of school per day.
Four factory inspectors were appointed to enforce the law throughout the whole country.

Despite these conditions, the Factory Act did not put an immediate stop to mistreatment because it only applied to children working in textile mills, not coal mines or other types of factories.

The Mines Act of 1842 established restrictions on child mine labor, barring children under ten from working in the mines.

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Ten Hours Act of 1847

10 hour working day for women and children under 18.
Laws still poorly enforced, and conditions remained harsh.
Did nothing to improve wages.

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Industrial Revolution

Why were Labor Unions in many countries banned?

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Trade Unions

Agricultural laborers who had formed a trade union in the village of Tolpuddle were arrested on false charges and sent to the British colony of Australia.

The Tolpuddle Martyrs

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Unions

1825: Combination Acts repealed

1799 and 1800
British parliament passed the Combination Acts
You could be imprisoned if you demanded higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions.

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Labor Unions

Sir Francis Burdett
The 1871 Trade Union Act: legalized unions.
Unions now had real power.
Collective bargaining

In the cartoon shown in this slide, Sir Francis Burdett is depicted as triumphant over the industrialists and anti-union politicians who hindered the cause of trade unions. They are shown in front of a jail where many trade unionists were incarcerated. Burdett had been a leading parliamentary supporter of unions in the 1820s. He was jailed for a short time because of his radical views.

Many extremely violent strikes occurred before 1870, leading to hundreds or perhaps thousands of injuries and deaths. The government, led by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, appointed a Royal Commission to investigate the trade unions.

As a result of the Royal Commission’s work, Parliament passed the Trade Union Act of 1871, recognizing the collective or corporate identity of trade unions and effectively legalizing them. Trade unions were thereafter allowed to organize all of their own activities. As a result of this law, trade unions could sign contracts, enter into agreements, and function as legal entities (not simply as gatherings of people); in addition, they could exercise all these rights without punishment or prosecution. Trade unions also received exemptions and immunities: for example, judges would not intervene during strikes.

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Page 629: Chartists

What demands did they make?
Judging by this document how did the Industrial Revolution shape the political ambitions and interests of the laboring classes in Britain

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The Chartists: William Lovett

Political reformers who believed workers requests were not being heard.
Chartists wanted the government to adopt a “People’s Charter”
Wanted universal male suffrage and a secret ballot
Wanted salaries for members of Parliament so that workers could afford to enter politics./Redraw electoral districts.

A number of different protest groups emerged in the middle of the 19^th century. Some complained peacefully, while others used sabotage and violence.

The Chartists were members of a political reform movement that promoted the adoption of a “People's Charter.” This document called for:

voting by ballot
universal male suffrage
annual parliaments
equal electoral districts
no property qualifications for members of Parliament

The Chartist movement gathered momentum in large part due to the fervor and speaking talents of Feargus O'Connor. He traveled all over northern England—a highly industrialized region where recurrent economic depressions had caused considerable discontent—to garner support for the charter. In August of 1838, the charter was adopted at a national convention of labor organizations in Birmingham. The movement continued to grow for decades and greatly influenced the struggle for universal male voting rights.

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The Luddites

“General Ned Ludd” and the “Army of Redressers”

Many workers expressed outrage over low wages and the employment of unapprenticed workmen, who did not share the privileges and higher wages of apprenticed workmen. Some of these disgruntled workers, who later came to be called Luddites, broke into factories and destroyed machines. The Luddites referred to themselves as the “Army of Redressers”; their leader was “General Ned Ludd,” although there is little evidence to suggest that he was a real person. The impact of the Luddite movement, however, was felt through the destruction of equipment throughout the Midlands. In a matter of weeks, 200 machines were destroyed and special police units had to be hired to protect factories. The Prince Regent offered a reward (shown in this notice in this slide) to anyone "giving information on any person or persons wickedly breaking the frames.” Today, the term “Luddite” refers to a person who is opposed to new technology.

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The New Industrial �Class Structure

The New Working Class

The New Middle Class

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Middle and Working Class

Middle Class (upper and lower)

Working Class

Bankers, Lawyers, Doctors, Teachers
Rising social status
Well-educated
Gained social influence and political power

Worked in factories for low wages
Lived in tenements
Most children did not attend school
Industrializing England
Lifestyles and living conditions similar to lower middle class

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Lower and Middle Class Housing

Tenements

Middle Class Housing

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Travel

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Social Mobility

This illustration of a “typical apartment” appeared in a Parisian newspaper in 1845

This illustration in this slide offers a classic example of the Industrial Revolution’s impact on housing and urban development (Bibliotheque National, Paris). Servants are shown working on the ground floor, while an elderly couple dances to music a young girl plays on the piano. On the first floor (known as the second floor in the United States), two wealthy people relax in elegant surroundings. Above them on the second floor, a bourgeois family lives in comfortable but somewhat crowded conditions.

The rooms on the third floor are smaller. In the room on the left, a landlord appears to be evicting a resident, while a man and woman in the other room entertain themselves with a small dog. The fourth floor is divided into three rooms. Two artists relax in the room on the left, a young man sits in the middle room, and a poor man and woman live with their three children in the room on the right.

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Methodism

John Wesley
“Instant salvation”
Appealed to the working class

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Social Sciences: those branches of knowledge that scientifically study people as members of society.

Economics
Politics
History
Archaeology
Anthropology
Sociology
Psychology

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New Economic Theories�attacked the idea of mercantalism:belief that the world had a fixed amount of wealth.

“the dismal science”

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Adam Smith�1723–1790

-Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

-Founder of economics

-Free enterprise

-2 natural laws govern all business

Supply and Demand
Competition

“laissez-faire”=let it be/leave things alone

Born in Scotland, Adam Smith is often considered the founder of economics as a discipline. In his 1776 book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith postulated that self-interest guides the most efficient use of resources in a nation's economy, and that public welfare occurs as a by-product of pursuit of economic self-interest. Smith then argued that government efforts to promote the social good are ineffective compared to unbridled market forces; he also opposed government interference in the economy. His most influential work was The Wealth of Nations, published in 1744.

Adam Smith and the other economic philosophers shown on the following slides addressed many fundamental economic issues related to the Industrial Revolution. Because many of these men predicted the negative outcomes of continued industrialization, economics became known at the time as the “dismal science.”

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Thomas Malthus �1766–1834

-An Essay on the Principle of Population

-Greatest obstacle to human progress: Population

-Moral restraint

-Natural checks (famine, epidemics, wars)

-Food=+

-People=x

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David Ricardo �1772–1823

-Principles of Political Economy and Taxation

-Working class poverty is inevitable

-Supply and demand determine wages (Iron Law of Wages)

-When labor is plentiful=wages low

-When labor is scarce=wages will rise.

-As population grows more and more workers become available, and wages drop.

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Robert Owen�1771–1858

Utopian socialist: belief that people could live peacefully with each other in cooperative settlements in which everyone would work for a common good.
Founded New Lanark Mills in Scotland as a model cooperative factory
Many industrialists visited New Lanark, and a few adopted aspects of Owen’s cooperative

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Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels�The Communist Manifesto

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles”

Karl Marx theorized that the struggle between social classes was fundamental to society. He believed that society faced a constant struggle between the rich and the working classes, and that this class division could be blamed in large part on private ownership of the means of production (e.g., corporations, factories). In order for class conflict to be resolved, Marx believed that the major means of production had to be publicly owned.

Marx had a tremendous impact on the world’s political systems. Two of his most influential writings are:

The Communist Manifesto, written with Friedrich Engels in 1848, the same year as the revolutionary uproar that swept across Europe.
Das Kapital (The Capital), in which he outlined his economic theory in great detail.

Marx was eventually forced to move to London to avoid political persecution. He lived in poverty his entire life and died nearly penniless, despite having radically changed the political and economic foundations of Europe.

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Steps of Scientific Socialism

1. Struggle exists between the owners (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat).
2. Unequal distribution of wealth
3. The capitalists would continue to gain wealth while the proletariat would be driven deeper and deeper into poverty.
4. The proletariat would unite and overthrow the bourgeoisie in a violent socialist revolution.

5. Dictatorship of the proletariat
State would eventually wither away
6. =true communist (classless) society
“From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.”

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Social Sciences

Archaelogy

Anthropology

Study of human culture through the artifacts people leave behind.

Study of different societies, both past and present.
E.B. Tylor: kultur=set of beliefs and behaviors a society shares.
James George Frazer=comparison of customs

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Sociology

The study of human relationships in society.
August Comte: father of Sociology: believed that society, like nature, operated by certain laws.
Herbert Spencer: “Survival of the fittest” applied to human societies
Social Darwinism: Those who acquired wealth and power had done so because of their superior abilities.

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Psychology

Study of the mind and human behavior
Pavlov’s dogs (conditioned reflex)
Little Albert (Watson)
Sigmund Freud and the unconscious

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SUMMARY

Was the Industrial Revolution more

beneficial or harmful?

The Industrial Revolution changed Western society significantly. Consider the following:

--Thousands of people moved from rural to urban centers where manufacturing was located. This led to crowding and the creation of slums in the cities.

--New social class divisions emerged including a new wealthy “bourgeoisie” (middle class), the owners of the factories and other industrial enterprises, as well as a new lower working class, which often had poor working conditions and lived in poverty.

--Industrialization brought significantly high levels of environmental pollution. The burning of coal for energy and home heating often blackened city skies.

--Increased food production and manufactured goods meant greater availability and lower prices. This meant economic improvement for many people in the industrialized countries and a higher standard of living. By 1900, many people in the Western world consumed more and lived longer than their predecessors.

(The teacher can discuss the question on the slide with the class.)

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Cultural Impact: Romanticism

The Romantics glorified the divine power of nature as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution’s achievement of controlling nature through technology.

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Cultural Impact: Realism

French artist Honore Daumier painted the poor and working classes. In Third-Class Carriage (shown here), he illustrates with great compassion a group of people on a train journey.

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Impressionism: vivid impressions of people and places

Claude Monet: “Impression,Sunrise”

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British liberal Reforms in its Empire

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Reform Bills

1829: Catholic Emancipation Act: Allowed Roman Catholics to serve in Parliament if they recognized the Protestant monarch as ruler of Great Britain.
Reform bill of 1832: -
took seats in the House of Commons away from less populated areas and gave them to industrial cities.
People with less property could vote.
Two parties: Liberal party and Conservative party
1832: Slavery abolished in all British colonies.
1846: Corn laws repealed

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Victorian Age (1837-1900)

Rule of Queen Victoria
Gave her prime ministers a free hand and did not interfere.

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Two dominant prime ministers�(1868-1894)

Benjamin Disraeli

(Conservative)

William Gladstone

(Liberal)

Master politician interested in expanding the British empire and guiding foreign affairs.
Suez Control
Queen Victoria; Empress of India
Queen Victoria’s favorite.

Concerned mainly with domestic and financial affairs.
Education Act of 1870 (national elementary ed school)
Elementary Ed became free in 1892.
1872: Secret ballot
1884: Right to vote to agricultural workers
1885: Districts = to population.

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Women’s rights

Beginning in the 1800’s, many women in Great Britain became suffragettes (women who campaigned for their right to vote)
Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and daughter Christabel.
Will not receive the right to vote until 1928.

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Canada

Upper Canada (want self rule) vs. Lower Canada(disliked being controlled by the British)
Lessons learned by American Revolution?
1841: Act of Union: Parliament formed in each
1867: British North America Act: Dominion of Canada (Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brusnswick)
1869/1870:Northwest Territories and Manitoba
1898: Yukon Territory (Gold)
1905: Alberta and Saskatchewan (Canadian Pacific Railway)
CANADA MAP

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More British Empire!

Australia

New Zealand

1770: Captain James Cook claimed for England. (eastern shore=New South Wales)
After American Rev, used as a penal colony.
Original inhabitants=Aborigines
1829=whole continent claimed
1901=Commonwealth of Australia

Captain Cook
1840: Officially claimed when British signed a treaty with the Maori (original inhabitants)
1852: Constitution (self governing colony)
1893: First country in the world to grant women the right to vote.
1907: Dominion of British Empire.

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France: Revolution and Reform

Couldn’t keep up with British industrialization
French Revolution and resulting political chaos hindered economic development

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Louis XVIII and Charles X

Louis XVIII
Accepted a constitution that limited his power and kept many of the reforms set up between 1789-1815.
Kept a balance between absolute monarchy and a liberal government.
Dies in 1824

Charles X
Brother of Louis XVIII
Abolishes most liberal reforms.
Taxed people to pay back nobles whose estates had been seized and sold to peasants.
Revoltution of 1830: Charles gives up his thrown.

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Louis Philippe

Leaders of Revolution of 1830 decided to put another king on the throne
Louis Philippe (member of the Bourbon line who people believed to be liberal)
Parliament approved.
Called himself “the citizen king”
Actions helped the upper class the most.
Workers not allowed to organize and unions illegal.
Food shortages and unemployment rose.

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Revolution of 1848/2^nd French Republic

Louis Philippe issues a decree limiting free speech.=rioting in streets.
National Guard troops summoned joined in the revolution.
Louis Philippe gives up the throne.
People of Paris set up 2^nd French Republic.
National workshops organized.
All men of France could vote

Elections held to elect a new National Assembly that would write a new constitution.
Conservative members of the national assembly ended the national workshops.
Army called in and all socialist leaders were either killed, imprisoned, or exiled.
Karl Marx was expelled from France.
New constitution:
Republican form of government.
President elected for 1 four year term.
Legislature elected by all French males of voting age.

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Election of 1848

Voters chose Louis-Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte)
His hope was to restore the French empire.
Tried to build support all over France (military and Catholics)