Presented By

• Faiq Ejaz
• Muammad Awais
• Hammad Ali
• Hadia Tariq
• Ezza Sarwar
• Nemal Usam

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Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

• Introduction Biotechnology and genetic engineering are closely related fields that involve the manipulation of biological systems, organisms and genes to develop new products, technologies and medical treatments.
• Biotechnology Biotechnology is the use of biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to develop new products, technologies and medical treatments . It encompasses various disciplines, including: 1. Genetic engineering 2. Cell and tissue culture 3. Biomedical engineering 4. Biopharmaceuticals 5. Bioinformatics

Types of Biotechnology

• Medical Biotechnology Develops medical treatments, vaccines and diagnostic tools. Examples: gene therapy, regenerative medicine, personalized medicine. Applications: cancer treatment, genetic disorders, infectious diseases
• Agricultural Biotechnology Improves crop yields, pest resistance and nutritional content.- Examples: genetically modified organisms (GMOs), precision agriculture. Applications: drought-resistant crops, pest management, nutritional enhancement.
• Industrial Biotechnology Produces biofuels, bioplastics and enzymes. Examples: biofuel production, biorefineries. Applications: sustainable energy, biodegradable materials.

Types of Biotechnology

• Environmental Biotechnology Addresses pollution, conservation and sustainability. Examples: bioremediation, wastewater treatment. Applications: pollution control, ecosystem restoration.
• Forensic Biotechnology Applies DNA analysis to crime scene investigation. Examples: DNA fingerprinting, genetic profiling. Applications: crime solving, paternity testing.6.
• Marine Biotechnology Explores marine resources for biomedical and industrial applications. Examples: seaweed-based products, marine bioproducts. Applications: biomedical research, sustainable aquaculture

Types of Biotechnology

• Plant Biotechnology Develops plant-related products and technologies. Examples: crop improvement, plant breeding. Applications: agriculture, horticulture.
• Microbial Biotechnology Utilizes microorganisms for industrial and medical applications. Examples: fermentation, bioremediation. Applications: biofuel production, antibiotic development.10.
• Computational Biotechnology Applies computational tools to analyze biological data. Examples: bioinformatics, computational genomics. Applications: personalized medicine, systems biology
• Microbial Biotechnology Utilizes microorganisms for industrial and medical applications.- Examples: fermentation, bioremediation. Applications: biofuel production, antibiotic development

Types of Biotechnology

• Computational Biotechnology Applies computational tools to analyze biological data. Examples: bioinformatics, computational genomics. Applications: personalized medicine, systems biology.
• Synthetic Biotechnology Designs and constructs new biological systems. Examples: synthetic genomics, genetic engineering. Applications: biofuel production, bioproducts.
• Regenerative Biotechnology Develops therapies for tissue repair and regeneration. Examples: stem cell therapy, tissue engineering. Applications: medical treatments, disease modeling.
• Bioinformatics Analyzes and interprets biological data. Examples: genomics, proteomics. Applications: personalized medicine, disease research

Techniques Of Biotechnology

• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) A technique used to amplify small segments of DNA to create millions of copies. Applications: 1.DNA cloning 2.Forensic science 4.Medical diagnostics, 5.Detecting infectious agents.
• CRISPR-Cas9 A gene-editing tool that allows for precise modification of DNA sequences. Applications: 1.Correcting genetic defects 2.Treating diseases like cancer 3.Developing crops resistant to pests or drought

Techniques Of Biotechnology

• Gel Electrophoresis A technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or proteins based on size and charge by passing them through a gel matrix. Applications: 1.DNA fingerprinting 2.Genetic testing 3.Protein analysis
• Cloning The process of creating identical copies of DNA, cells, or organisms. Applications: 1.Cloning of animals 2.Therapeutic cloning for medical purposes 3.Gene cloning for research

Techniques Of Biotechnology

• Microbial Fermentation The use of microorganisms to produce chemicals, enzymes, and biofuels through fermentation processes. Applications: Production of antibiotics bioethanol , and food products like yogurt and cheese.
• Tissue Culture Growing cells or tissues in an artificial medium outside the organism. Applications: 1.Plant propagation 2.Production of vaccines 3.Studying cellular processes.

Techniques Of Biotechnology

• Monoclonal Antibody Technology The creation of identical antibodies from a single type of immune cell to target specific cells Applications: 1.Cancer treatment 2.Diagnostic tests 3.Developing targeted therapies
• Enzyme Engineering Modifying enzymes to improve their efficiency and stability for industrial and medical applications. Applications: 1.Biocatalysts in industry 2.Diagnostics 3.Drug production

Techniques Of Biotechnology

• Bioreactors Vessels that provide a controlled environment for the growth of cells or microorganisms on a large scale. Applications: 1.Mass production of proteins, Enzymes, or vaccines 2.Cultivation of genetically engineered organisms
• Recombinant DNA Technology (Genetic Engineering) The process of altering an organism's DNA by inserting, deleting, or modifying genes from another organism. Applications: 1.Production of insulin 2.Gene therapy 3.Genetically modified crops.

Genetic Engineering

• Introduction Genetic engineering is the deliberate modification of an organism's genetic material (DNA) to alter its characteristics or capabilities. This is achieved by adding, removing, or editing specific genes, often using techniques like recombinant DNA technology or gene editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9. The goal is to produce organisms with desirable traits, such as disease resistance, enhanced growth, or the ability to produce specific proteins or substances. Genetic engineering is widely used in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.
• Genetic Engineering Tools: 1. CRISPR/Cas9: Gene editing tool. 2. DNA sequencing: Determines genetic code. 3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Amplifies DNA. 4. Gene vectors: Vehicles for gene transfer.

Genetic Engineering

• Types of Genetic Engineering: 1. Somatic gene therapy: Treats non-heritable diseases by modifying non-reproductive cells. 2. Germline gene therapy: Treats heritable diseases by modifying reproductive cells. 3. Gene editing: Precise DNA modifications using tools like CRISPR/Cas9. 4. Gene silencing: Suppressing gene expression
• Applications: 1. Medicine: Genetic diseases treatment, vaccine development. 2. Agriculture: Crops with improved yield, resistance. 3. Biotechnology: Biofuels, bioproducts. 4. Research: Understanding gene function, disease modeling

Balance of catabolic, anabolic, and amphibolic processes

• Introduction: Human metabolism is a dynamic balance between catabolic, anabolic, and amphibolic processes. These three types of processes are central to maintaining the body’s energy balance and overall function.
• Catabolic Processes Catabolism involves breaking down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process. This energy is captured in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is used to fuel various cellular activities. Examples Glycolysis: The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH. Beta-oxidation: The breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, producing ATP. Proteolysis: The breakdown of proteins into amino acids

• Catabolism provides the energy needed for: Physical activity Cellular maintenance Anabolic processes

Anabolic Processes

• Introduction Anabolism involves building up large molecules from smaller ones, a process that requires energy, usually in the form of ATP. This is essential for growth, repair, and maintenance of cells and tissues.
• Examples Protein synthesis: Building proteins from amino acids. Gluconeogenesis: Producing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids. Lipogenesis: Creating fatty acids and triglycerides from acetyl-CoA
• supports: Muscle growth and repair Synthesis of essential molecules like enzymes, hormones, and DNA Cellular structure maintenance

Amphibolic Processes:

• Introduction Amphibolic pathways function as links between catabolism and anabolism. These pathways can operate in both directions, depending on the body's energy needs.
• Example The key amphibolic process is the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), which plays a dual role: In catabolism, it oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH₂ . In anabolism, it provides intermediates for biosynthetic pathways, such as the production of amino acids and fatty acids.

Balance in Human Metabolism:

• Energy homeostasis depends on a finely tuned balance between catabolic and anabolic activities.
• During fed state: After a meal anabolic processes like glycogen synthesis and fat storage are more active to store excess nutrients.
• During fasted state Conversely, during fasting or intense exercise (the fasted state), catabolic processes such as glycogenolysis and fat breakdown dominate to provide energy.

Hormonal regulation of metabolism

• Insulin Hormones like insulin promote anabolic activities, especially after meals, by stimulating glucose uptake, glycogen storage, and protein synthesis.
• Glucagon and Epinephrine Hormones like glucagon and epinephrine trigger catabolic pathways during fasting or stress to release energy from stored reserves.
• Flexibility of Amphibolic processes Amphibolic processes ensure flexibility, allowing the body to switch between energy production and the biosynthesis of vital compounds, depending on the current metabolic state. Maintaining this balance is crucial for health, and disruptions in metabolic processes can lead to conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and muscle wasting

Acid-Base and electrolyte balance in human body

• Introduction Acid-base and electrolyte balance in the human body are vital for maintaining homeostasis and ensuring that physiological processes function properly. Disruptions in these balances can lead to serious health issues.
• Acid-Base Balance The body’s acid-base balance refers to the regulation of the pH of blood and other bodily fluids, which is critical for enzyme function, oxygen transport, and overall cellular activity. Normal blood pH is tightly regulated between 7.35 and 7.45. The body uses several mechanisms to maintain this balance.

Mechanism to maintain balance

• Buffers 1.Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻): The most important buffer system in the body. It neutralizes excess acids or bases to maintain pH. Equation: CO₂ + H₂O ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ When there’s excess acid, bicarbonate absorbs hydrogen ions (H⁺), reducing acidity. When there’s excess base, carbonic acid releases H⁺ to lower pH. 2.Phosphate buffer system Phosphate buffer and proteins (like hemoglobin in red blood cells) also help stabilize PH of the body.

Mechanism to maintain balance

• Respiratory System The lungs control the level of carbon dioxide (CO₂), which can combine with water to form carbonic acid, influencing pH. Increased CO₂ (due to slow or shallow breathing) leads to more carbonic acid, lowering pH (making it more acidic). Decreased CO₂ (due to rapid breathing) reduces carbonic acid, increasing pH (making it more alkaline).
• Renal System The kidneys maintain acid-base balance by: Excreting H⁺ ions into urine. Reabsorbing or excreting bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) as needed. Producing new bicarbonate when necessary.

Imabalance in Acid-Base

• Acidosis (pH < 7.35): Can be caused by respiratory issues (excess CO₂) or metabolic problems (e.g., lactic acid buildup).
• Alkalosis (pH > 7.45): Can result from excessive loss of CO₂ (e.g., hyperventilation) or loss of acids due to vomiting or diuretics

Electrolyte Balance

• Electrolytes Electrolytes are ions that conduct electricity in the body and are crucial for fluid balance, nerve function, muscle contractions, and maintaining pH.
• Examples Key electrolytes include: 1.Sodium (Na⁺) 2.Potassium (K⁺) 3.Calcium (Ca²⁺) 4.Chloride (Cl⁻) 5.Magnesium (Mg²⁺) 6.Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)

Electrolytes

• Sodium (Na⁺) Primary extracellular cation that regulates fluid balance, blood pressure, and nerve transmission . Controlled by hormones like aldosterone and the renin-angiotensin system.
• Potassium (K⁺) Main intracellular cation, critical for nerve impulses, muscle function (especially the heart), and acid-base balance. Aldosterone also helps regulate potassium by promoting its excretion in urine.
• Calcium (Ca²⁺) Important for muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, blood clotting, and bone structure. Regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and calcitonin

Electrolytes

• Chloride (Cl⁻) Helps maintain osmotic pressure and acid-base balance by forming HCl in the stomach and balancing electrical charge across membranes
• Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) Key buffer for maintaining acid-base balance, as it neutralizes acids.
• Magnesium (Mg²⁺) Involved in enzyme function, nerve and muscle function, and the stabilization of nucleic acids and proteins.

Regulation of Electrolyte Balance

• The body regulates electrolytes through Kidneys: They filter electrolytes from the blood, reabsorbing or excreting them to maintain balance. Hormones: Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption (and potassium excretion) in the kidneys, while antidiuretic hormone (ADH) controls water retention and influences sodium concentration. Diet:Adequate intake of electrolytes is necessary for maintaining proper levels.
• Imbalance Hyponatremia (low sodium): Can lead to muscle weakness, confusion, seizures, and coma. Hyperkalemia (high potassium): Can cause dangerous heart arrhythmias. Hypocalcemia (low calcium): Leads to muscle cramps, tetany, and heart problems. Hypermagnesemia (high magnesium): Can cause muscle weakness and respiratory depression

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Interactions Between Acid-Base and Electrolyte Balance

• Changes in electrolyte levels can directly affect acid-base balance. For example, potassium and hydrogen ions can shift between cells and blood, affecting pH. Acidosis tends to cause hyperkalemia (high potassium), as H⁺ ions enter cells in exchange for K⁺. Alkalosis can cause hypokalemia (low potassium), as K⁺ shifts into cells to balance pH changes.
• Maintaining a balance of acids, bases, and electrolytes is crucial for health. Disruptions can lead to serious medical conditions, requiring the body’s systems to rapidly adjust through buffering, respiratory, and renal mechanisms.