Comparative Government

Why Study Comparative Politics?

• The only way to truly understand our system of government is to compare it to others.
• Comparison is fundamental to all human thought
• Help “connect the dots” and make sense of world events
• Comparing governments helps explain past and current events and predict future events

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5 Topics of COPO

First, we will review the concepts of each topic using US as our example

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Topic 5: Political and Economic Changes

Topic 4: Party and Electoral Systems and Citizen Organizations

Topic 3: Political Culture and Participation

Topic 2: Political Institutions

Topic 1: Political systems, Regimes and Governments

Topic 1.1 Practice of Political Scientists

Empirical Data (Quantitative)

• Based on facts & statistics
• Data collection sources: GNP, HDI, GDP, GDP per capita, GDP growth rate, GINI index, Freedom House, Transparency international, Failed States Index

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Normative Information

(Qualitative)

• Based on value judgments, opinions
• Ex. Do statistics fare well or ill for a country?
• Making judgements based on the data sources

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Topic 1.1 Practice of Political Scientists

• Research using the scientific method. A hypothesis (speculative statement about a relationship between variables) is formed.

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• Political scientists must discern if variables are related through causation or correlation.
• Causation- the idea that an independent variable causes or produces another variable (dependent variable)
• Correlation- when a change in one variable accompanies a change in another.

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Topic 1.1 Practice of Political Scientists

• Example of causation:
• A causes B, or B causes A,
• Low levels of formal education cause a high poverty level.

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• Example of correlation:
• The higher the poverty level, the higher rate of crime.
• Meaning a change in one variable does not always produce a change in another

� Topic 1.2 Defining Political Organizations�

• States: countries that control and keep order within their borders
• Use institutions to turn ideas into policies
• Ex: Congress, Parliament, President 🡪 elected positions
• Ex. Bureaucracy 🡪 non-elected…such as Post Office, IRS, Department of Defense

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Topic 1.2 Defining Political Organizations�

States exercise sovereignty – independent legal authority, the ability to carry out actions or policies

• Internal vs external sovereignty

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🡪No sovereignty = No autonomy (self rule).

• No autonomy 🡪 failed state
• Ex. Developing countries (Nigeria)

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Topic 1.2 Defining Political Organizations

• Nation: Group of people bound together by a common political, social, or religious identity
• Nationalism
• Globalization’s impact

• Ex. The Iroquois nation competes globally with an independent national lacrosse team

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Topic 1.2 Defining Political Organizations

• Regime: rules a state sets and follows in exerting power
• Lasts over time
• Two categories or types
• Democratic or Authoritarian

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• Government: set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make biding decisions for a state.
• Leaders of each branch in auth/dem regimes

Examples: The American System

Regime

Government

Topic 1.3 Authoritarian Regimes

• Characteristics of Authoritarian Regimes:
• States are usually run by a group of powerful elites
• Elites = small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of power and wealth
• Little citizen input selecting leader, so a leader has NO responsibility to do anything for them
• Restricts civil rights and liberties
• Usually only one political party
• Command economy
• Ex. Illiberal Democracies, hybrid regimes, theocracies, one-party states, Totalitarianism, Military Rule

Topic 1.3, 1.4 Democratic Regimes

• Characteristics of all democratic regimes:
• Follow Rule of Law - everyone included the leaders must obey the laws, everyone is treated equally under the law
• Have civil rights and civil liberties, equal treatment of citizens
• Free and Fair elections and universal suffrage for adults
• Transparency of decision making
• Citizen participation in government
• When all these characteristics exist the regime is considered a liberal democracy

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Topic 1.3, 1.4 Democratic Regimes

• Illiberal democracy- missing any of the characteristics of a liberal democracy, but still have elections for leaders
• Also known as procedural democracy
• Democratization or Democratic consolidation- transitioning from authoritarian to democratic regime by implementing democratic characteristics

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Topics 1.5 and 1.6 Sources of Power and Changes in Power

• Sources of power in a country:
• constitutions, religions, military forces, political parties, legislatures and popular support
• Ex- US-constitution that sets up 3 branches and checks and balances

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• Changes in power-
• can be a change in regime = revolution
• or a change in government = elections, coups

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Topic 1.7 Federal and Unitary Systems

Federal

• Power divided between the central government & sub-units
• Regional bodies have significant powers (taxation, lawmaking, keeping order)

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Unitary

• Concentrates all policy making powers in one geographic place
• Central government is responsible for most policies
• Most countries have unitary

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Topic 1.7 Examples

Federal

• Local laws for local people
• South Dakota, USA: at minimum age for driver’s permit is 14.5 years. In Virginia its 16.5 years

Unitary

• All laws are applied uniformly throughout the country

Topic 1.7 Federal and Unitary Systems

• Advantages of Federal System:
• Makes it easier to govern a very large country (physically largest countries tend to have federal arrangements – not China though)
• Better accommodates regional differences
• Helps guard against concentration of political power

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• Disadvantages:
• Lack of uniformity in policy (ex: voting registration requirements, education requirements)
• If territorial lines of subunits correspond to deep social divisions, federalism reinforces those divisions

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Topic 1.7 Federal and Unitary systems

• Transition of a Unitary to a Federal System
• This process is called devolution– transfer of power from a central govt to lower/regional govt
• Why?
• Ethnic Forces
• Identity based on language, religion, customs
• Ethnonationalism
• Economic Forces
• Regional inequalities in income or standard of living
• Spatial Forces
• Usually occur on the margins/borders of the state
• Especially if water/mountains separate from central power and neighbor nations support separation

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Topic 1.8 Political Legitimacy

Legitimacy: The right to rule/the acceptance of a governing regime as authority

• 3 Types:
• Traditional authority: family, divine right
• Charismatic authority: personality… often short-lived (ex. Hitler, Napoleon)
• Rational-legal authority: constitution, systems of laws & procedures, institutionalized. Based on common law (traditions) and code law (written).

Topic 1.9 Sources of Legitimacy and Sustaining Legitimacy

• Where does the right to rule come from?
• Charismatic leadership
• Supranational systems (ex. UN, EU)
• Religious, social movements
• Economic well-being
• Nationalism/ shared political culture
• Historical tradition
• Satisfaction with govt. performance
• Peaceful transfer of power

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POWER+AUTHORITY=LEGITIMACY

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Topic 1.9 Sustaining & Undermining Legitimacy

Factors that Sustain Legitimacy

• Policy effectiveness within the government
• Political efficacy
• Institutionalized laws
• Tradition
• Charismatic leadership

Factors that Undermine Legitimacy

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• Increase in corruption, reduced electoral competition, poor economy, social conflict
• Devolution- can enhance or undermine legitimacy

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Topic 1.10 Political Stability

• Ability of a government to consistently provide services that meet the basic needs of most of the population to foster the public’s confidence in the institutions of the state.

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• Instability- the potential for sudden and significant change in the leadership, policies, or condition of a country.
• American/ French revolutions

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Political Institutions

Executive, Legislative and Judicial Branches

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Topic 2:

Parliamentary

• No separation of powers
• Legislature makes laws, but also appoints Prime Minister
• Strong party loyalty

United Kingdom

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Presidential

• Checks & balances, separation of power
• Weak party loyalty
• Strong exec. Branch
• United States

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• **Can also have a semi-presidential system with a Pres & Prime Minister (Russia)

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Topic 2.1 and 2.2 Democratic Regimes Types and powers of the branches of government

Topic 2.3-2.5 Executive Branch

• Carries out the laws & policies of the state (President-US)
• Head of State
• Symbolizes and represents the people
• May or may not have policymaking power
• Head of Government
• In charge of actually running the government
• The Chief Executive
• Most important person in policymaking
• Varies by government
• The Cabinet
• Most important decision making body in parliamentary systems
• Oversee the bureaucracy

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Topic 2.6-2.7 Legislative Branch

• Branch that makes laws
• Bicameral
• Two houses
• US- Senate and House of Representatives makes up Congress
• Advantages/Disadvantages?
• Unicameral
• One house
• Advantages/Disadvantages?

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Topic 2.8-2.9 Judicial Branch

• Judiciary: the set of institutions that are created to
• Interpret the application of public laws and policies
• Settle public disputes in the nation-state
• Enforce criminal law

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• If it is functioning ideally,  the judiciary plays a large role in maintaining rule of law
• Rule of Law:  constitutionalism; a governance system operating predictably under a known and transparent set of procedural rules (laws)

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• US- Supreme Court with 9 justices appointed for life

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�Topic 3: ��

Political Culture and Participation

Topic 3.1 Civil Society

• Citizens, participants, voters, engage in social and political interaction, free of state or governmental control or regulation
• Non-governmental organizations
• Interest groups
• Voluntary associations
• Religious groups

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• Access to free , uncensored media is crucial for the growth of civil society

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Topic 3.1 Civil Society

• How do citizens interact with each other and the state?
• Any group that connects citizens to the state are called linkage institutions
• These include media, interest groups and political parties
• Media and advocacy groups also influence state operations.

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Topic 3.2 Political Culture & Political Socialization

• How does citizen behavior relate to the state?
• Political Culture: collection of beliefs, values, practices, institutions of govt.
• Political culture is transmitted through a process called political socialization
• Political Socialization: is the lifelong process of how people acquire their ideas, political attitudes and values
• Agents of socialization: family, school, peers, media, government, church

Topic 3.3 Political Ideologies

• Sets of political values held by individuals
• Individualism- belief in freedom over government restrictions (I don’t need to wear a mask!)
• Neoliberalism- limited government intervention in the economy
• Communism- near total government control of the economy.
• Socialism- reducing income disparities and nationalization of major industries
• Fascism- favors author. rule with one ethnicity over overs
• Populism- rights of common people over elites (French Revolution)

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Topic 3.4 Political Values and Beliefs

• Political beliefs differ depending on the relationship between citizens and the state
• Impacts on political beliefs
• Rule of law (democracies) vs. rule by law (auth.)
• Amount of corruption in a state
• Enforcement responsibility in the hands of the state
• Health and material well-being of citizens

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• Radicalism
• Need for rapid, dramatic changes
• Think they can’t save current system

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• Conservatism
• See change as disruptive
• Value law and order

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• Liberalism
• Support reform, repair and gradual change
• Do not support revolution

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• Post-Materialism
• Values self-expression and quality of life
• Push for change in environmental issues, social and economic equality
• Reactionary beliefs
• Hate the status quo
• Turn back the clock
• Oppose revolution and reform
• Will use violence

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Topic 3.5 & 3.6 Political Participation

• How do citizens participate in the state in relation to regime’s use of authority and power?
• Interest Groups
• Political Parties
• Voting
• Referendums- votes on an issue by the people
• Protests can lead to Social Movements

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In a democracy, organized collective activities aim to bring about or resist change.

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Topic 3.5/3.6 Political Participation

Social Movement

Referendum

Topic 3.5/3.6 Political Participation

• Participation in Authoritarian Govts
• Most citizens contact govt through subject activities that involve obedience
• Obeying laws, following military orders, paying taxes, voting (although limited choices)

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• Participation in Democratic Govts
• Citizens usually play a more active part in political process
• Most common – voting.  Also working for candidates, political meetings/rallies, contributing to campaigns, political parties

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Topic 3.7 Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

Civil Rights

• Protection of groups of citizens from discrimination by the government or other individuals
• Right to vote, protections against discrimination

Civil Liberties

• Individual’s protection against the abuse of powers of the government.
• Freedom of speech, media, petition the government, assembly etc.

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Civil Rights

Civil Liberties

Topic 3.8 and 3.9 Divisions Among Citizens

• Politically relevant cleavages are internal divisions that structure societies and may fragment the state along the following lines
• Class
• Ethnicity
• Religion
• Geography/ Territory

Topics 3.8 and 3.9 Divisions Among Citizens

• Coinciding (Reinforcing) Cleavages
• Identity divisions that coincide with one another for large numbers of individuals
• More likely to be explosive

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• Cross-Cutting Cleavages
• Divide society into many potential groups that may conflict on one issue, but cooperate on another
• Tend to keep conflict to more moderate levels

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Topic 4

Party and Electoral Systems and Citizen Organizations

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Topic 4.1 and 4.2 Electoral Systems

• 2 major types: Single Member District Plurality and Proportional Representation
• SMDP- Also called “First Past the Post” (FPTP); Winner takes all
• Winner must get more votes than anyone else
• Does NOT require a majority to win
• Single member districts (SMD) – candidates compete for a single representative’s seat (voters choose 1)

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Topic 4.1 and 4.2 Electoral Systems

• Effect of SMDP systems encourage large, broad-based parties because…
• no matter how many people run in a district, the person with the largest # of votes wins
• this encourages parties to become larger, spreading their “umbrellas” to embrace more voters
• Parties without big groups of voters supporting them have little hope of winning
• Some SMD require a majority and if no one receives a majority a run-off election is held between the top 2 candidates

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Topic 4.1 and 4.2 Electoral Systems

• Proportional Representation (PR) Creates multi-member districts
• More than one legislative seat in each district
• Ballots are cast for a party, not an individual
• Open vs closed list :
• Open – people pick;  Closed – party picks
• Percentage of  votes a party gets determines # of seats
• Effect: Pure form encourages a large # of small parties  because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected

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SMD Ballot vs Proportional Ballot

Single Member District Ballot

Proportional Ballot

Topic 4.1 and 4.2 Electoral Systems

• Mixed system:
• Combines first past the post & proportional
• Some # of seats are single-member & some are proportional

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Topic 4.3 and 4.4 Political Party Systems

• 1 Party or Dominant party system: Authoritarian system with one party in control.
• Dominant party “allow” elections to grow legitimacy
• 2 party system: elections that feature two major parties competing for power.
• Multi-party system: elections that feature more than two parties competing for governing power.

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Topic 4.5 Impact of Interest Groups

• Interest Groups- Organizations of like-minded people
• Want to influence & shape public policy
• Usually have very narrow goals
• Often have a great deal in common with political parties
• Ex. NRA, NAACP, MADD

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• Differences between Political Parties and IGs:
• Parties influence govt primarily through the electoral process (run candidates); Interest groups often support candidates, but do not run their own candidates.
• Parties generate and support a broad spectrum of policies; interest groups support one or a few related policies.

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Topic 4.6 Pluralist and Corporatist Interests

• Interest group pluralism exists where democracies do not have nationalized industry
• Pluralism = many groups compete for access to the government
• Competition basis of any market economy

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Topic 4.6 Pluralist and Corporatist Interests

• Corporatism- government controls access to policy making by relying on state-sanctioned groups or single peak association (SPAs) to represent labor, business and agriculture.
• The state controls more of the citizen input in a corporatist system than pluralist.

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Topic 4.6 Pluralist and Corporatist Interests

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Topic 5:

Political and Economic Changes and Development

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Topic 5.1/5.2 Impact of Global Economic Forces

• Economic Globalization-economic networks that are growing interconnected, worldwide market with actors unconstrained by political borders. Trade with other countries etc.

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• MNCs- businesses with large presence in countries in different regions in the world- dominate markets and pose challenges to economic policies of countries (BP, Exxon, McDonalds, Nike, etc.)

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Topic 5.3 Challenges from Globalization

• Challenge state sovereignty
• Environmental degradation from MNCs especially in developing countries
• Economic sanctions (restrictions) (US placed on Iran and China)
• protests

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Topic 5.4 Economic Liberalization

• Economic liberalization- state reduces its economic role and embraces free market principles
• Market economy: right to own property, most industry is privately owned, govt. does not control competition and profit
• Mixed effects- increase in national income, inequality in wealth distribution

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Topic 5.5 International and Supranational Organizations

• International Organizations- organizations joined by member states in a common interest
• World Bank, and the United Nations
• Supranational Organizations – organizations in which member states grant the governing organization sovereignty over policies typically related to trade
• pooling their sovereignty to gain political, economic or social clout
• European Union (EU) and World Trade Organization (WTO)

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Topic 5.6 Adaptation of Social Policies

• Governments implement social welfare policies to reduce poverty, increase literacy, and improve public health
• The end goal is to strengthen the regime’s stability and legitimacy of the government

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Topic 5.7 and 5.9 Impact of Industrialization and Natural Resources

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- “Advanced” Democracies (1^st world): well established, high economic development, industrialized

Ex. US and UK

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- Communist & Post-Communist (2^nd world): limit individual freedom, try to divide wealth equally

Ex. Russia, China

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- Less Developed/Developing (3rd world): newly industrialized econ. growth, typically depend on more developed countries for economic assistance

Ex. Mexico, Iran, Nigeria

Topic 5.8 Demographic Change

• Demography = study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations.
• EX: In the US- people are moving from rural (country) to urban (city) areas, people are moving to the Southern part of the US.
• US population is aging/ getting older.

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Topic 5.8 Demographic Change

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