Lecture 1:�Topic Overview

Dr Tan Kok Wei

ELC612

Learning and Cognition

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

1. Evaluate different theories of learning (T1, T2, T3, T4) and apply them in teaching
2. Help learner improve their ability of stay attentive, retain information (T4)
3. Defend the importance of constructivism in learning (T5)
4. Distinguish thinking and metacognition (T6, T7)
5. Help boost critical and creative thinking (T7)

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Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

1. Examine how individual difference and task types may have impact on learning and its outcomes
2. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
3. Boost motivation of learners
4. List and discuss the importance milestone of reading

Introduction

Psychology is the scientific study of human ABC (affect, behavior, and cognition) with the ultimate aims to explain, predict and modification

• Comprising various theoretical viewpoints

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Psychoanalysis emphases on childhood experiences and unconscious mind

Behaviourism studies mainly observable behaviour

Cognition focuses on internal mental processes

Introduction

Psychologists employ a wide range of research method

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Surveys and correlation

Experiment

Observation

Case studies

Behavourism

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Applying Behavourism

1. Rewards can be beyond those tangible ☞ feedback and compliments
2. Provide immediate and specific feedback upon completion of an assessment
3. Delayed feedback may be useful for complex learning materials and for older students
4. Diversify the format for reinforcers ☞ nodding, smile, acknowledgement, specific compliments
5. Use different schedule of reinforcement
6. Be mindful for attention seeking

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Cognitive Theories

• Cognition = mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, which are what the mind creates
• Watson pushed back against analytic introspection of cognitive sciences and due to the "invisible" mental states, couldn't be objectively measured or verified
• Skinner argues that language is learned through reinforcement
• Noam Chomsky (1959) wrote a devastating review, arguing that children produce sentences they've never heard

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Cognitive Theories

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development centres on how humans construct mental models of the world through continuous active learning

• Schema = the building blocks of knowledge ☞ "file folders" to organize experience and predict outcomes
• Assimilation = Fitting in new info through existing schemas without changing the underlying mental model
• Accommodation = Modifying schemas when new information contradicts current understanding
• Equilibration = a sense of cognitive balance when current schemas smoothly explain the world

Cognitive Theories

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that learning occurs within a social context through observation, modelling, and cognitive processing

• Modelling = learning by watching the actions, attitudes, and emotional responses of others
• Imitation = reproduction of modelled behaviour through mediational processes such as attention, retention and motivation
• Bandura expanded traditional operant conditioning by demonstrating that direct personal consequences (reinforcement) are not necessary for learning

Applying Cognitive Theories

1. Encourage active construction instead of spoon-feed
2. Use strategies to make learner aware of inconsistencies in their thinking (e.g., prompting and questioning)
3. Compliment a student who is on task to set a good standard of behaviours
4. Share high-quality work samples
5. Ensure proper attention and retention by using visual cues or enthusiastic delivery

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Information Processing

• The Information Processing Model conceptualizes the mind as a computer system that takes in environmental data (encoding), transforms it, stores it, and retrieves it when needed
• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed 3 stores of memory:

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Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory can be divided into

1. Explicit memory – those you can consciously bring to mind and "declare" in words
2. Implicit memory - operates beneath conscious awareness

Retention and Retrieval

Effective retention depends on several mechanisms that govern how data is processed, organized, and recalled

1. Rehearsal = conscious repetition of information
2. Organization = grouping info into structured frameworks such as hierarchies or categories
3. Chunking = consolidating bits of data into meaningful units
4. Retrieval cues are internal or external stimuli—such as a keyword, smell, emotional state, or physical location—that help trigger access to stored memories

Constructivism

Constructivism ☞ learners actively construct understanding of the world through experience and reflection, rather than passively absorbing facts

• Social constructivism argues emphasize the importance of social interaction, language, and cultural context
• Zone of Proximal Development = optimal "learning window" that can be achieved with the guidance of "More Knowledgeable Other“
• Scaffolding = tailored support provided to help a learner master a new concept or skill

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Applying Constructivism

1. Incorporate hands-on activities
• Collaborative learning and team works
2. Encourage expression of ideas and comments
• Ask question
3. Observe and provide support when it’s needed
4. Check the clarity and specificity of the instructions
5. Put learning into (social) context

Metacognition

• Metacognition (thinking about thinking) = our awareness and active control over one’s own cognitive processes

Metacognition

• Metacognition (thinking about thinking) = our awareness and active control over one’s own cognitive processes

Applying Metacognition

1. Ask questions before (“what’s LO”), during (“am I focusing”) and after learning (“how to improve”)
2. Verbalize internal decisions
3. Teach with in simple language (to your siblings or grandparents)
4. Organize topics into 3 categories ☞ KWL Chart
• What you know (K)
• What you want to know (W)
• What you learned (L)

Thinking

Good (Critical) Thinker

• Intrinsic motivation can be also be beneficial: Give rewards sparingly, especially on tasks of natural interest

Divergent Thinking

• True creativity requires both styles operating dynamically
• Wallas outlined four-stages of creative insights
1. Preparation: Collect info, define problem
2. Incubation: Stepping away from the problem
3. Illumination: Aha, a sudden flash of insight
4. Verification: Refinement and evaluation

Divergent Thinking

• True creativity requires both styles operating dynamically
• Wallas outlined four-stages of creative insights
1. Preparation: Collect info, define problem
2. Incubation: Stepping away from the problem
3. Illumination: Aha, a sudden flash of insight
4. Verification: Refinement and evaluation

Boosting Creativity

1. Accept change as the only constant
2. Realise that some problems have no easy answers
3. Recognise that many problem have a number of possible answers
4. No guilty for trying and failing
5. Reward for dare to try and be different
6. Develop perseverance �

Individual Differences

• Learner differs in attitudes, interests, aptitudes, abilities and knowledge, broadly under two main factors:

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LEARNING TRAITS

• Preferred way of processing information
• Personality, including motivation
• Prior knowledge

LEARNING TASKS

• Skills activated depend on the task: going beyond given text requires the learner to draw inferences

Age Differences

Piaget argues that children are "active scientists" who construct their own understanding of the world

Age Differences

Piaget argues that children are "active scientists" who construct their own understanding of the world

Learning Taxonomy

• While cognitive learning spans six levels, but classroom tests heavily over-index on basic recall (Bloom et al., 1956)

Motivation

• Motivation explains why people begin an action, how much effort they put into it, and how long they persist �

Motivation

Increase Motivation

Provide choices

Moderately challenging

Grant autonomy and control

Encourage collaboration

Meaning construction

Apparent outcome, feedback or consequences

Reading

• While the earlier years of schooling emphasize on “learning to read”, we subsequently “read to learn”
1. Translating orthographic or marks on paper
2. Learning letter, sound units and pronunciation
3. Underlining and highlighting may help focus
4. Knowing what is essential and whatnot
• The context often contains clues to figure out the meaning of an ambiguous word
• Various strategies have been designed to transform passive reading into active, deep comprehension of text

Reminder

Recap: The current lecture is rather concise, merely serve as an overview

Reminder: Should learned prior to this during your diploma or bachelor’s degree

Revise: If you can’t recall, revisit the content accordingly by referring to the main references

Reflect: Thinking more deeply and relate to your previous and recent experiences

Question?

Thanks