Protocol

• Chief Host: The Vice Chancellor, Professor Bashiru Garba, MFR
• University Leadership:
• Deputy Vice Chancellors (Administration, Academics, and Research, Innovation & Development)
• Distinguished Members of the Governing Council
• The Registrar, The Bursar, The University Librarian
• Principal Officers
• Academic Leadership:
• Provost, College of Health Sciences
• Deputy Provost
• Deans (Basic Clinical Sciences, School of Postgraduate Studies, Student Affairs)
• All College of Health Sciences Deans and Deans of other faculties
• Directors & Senate Members
• Departmental & Community:
• HOD, Medical Microbiology & Parasitology and other HODs
• Distinguished scholars, professors, teachers and mentors
• Other Faculty, Staff, Students, Family, Friends, Invited Guests
• Gentlemen of the Press

"Distinguished ladies and gentlemen, Good day!"

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Preamble

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Choice of Title

In the quest of coming up with this title, I have considered several other titles to coin my Academic Journey;

I finally settled on…

“The Odyssey of a Sahelian Microbial Pathologist: From Petri Dish to Public Health”

• Father, late Alhaji Muhammad Yahaya Abubakar, studied at Al-Azhar University, returned as a respected teacher, mentored prominent figures (e.g., Late Sani Abacha, Sultan Muhammad Saad Abubakar, Prof Abdulmuminu Hassan Rafindadi)
• I was born in Katsina State into a lineage of nomadic scholars; grandfather traveled from Daura to Saudi Arabia, later settling in Sudan for Hajj, Islamic knowledge, and healing
• Pursued education across Nigeria, driven by thirst for knowledge and service

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SECTION I: EARLY LIFE, NOMADIC BACKGROUND AND STRUGGLE FOR A CAREER

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SECTION II: THE INTERSECTION BETWEEN CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY, INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND PUBLIC HEALTH

• What is Health:
• The WHO defined Health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’’
• This requires understanding the interface between clinical microbiology, infectious diseases, and public health
• Clinical Microbiology belongs to the field of Laboratory Medicine
• History of Laboratory Medicine:
• Ancient origins: Herophilus of Alexandria’s autopsies (325–255 BC)
• Modern development began in the 18th century with medical pioneers:
• Auenbrugger (chest auscultation),
• Theodore Schwann (cell theory),
• Rudolf Virchow (cellular pathology)
• Pathology: the science behind the cure

• Involves analysis of blood, fluids, tissues to aid diagnosis and management
• Pathologists are physician-scientists linking laboratory data to clinical care
• Core divisions include:
• Anatomic Pathology & Forensic Medicine
• Haematology & Blood Transfusion
• Chemical Pathology & Immunology
• Clinical/Medical Microbiology & Parasitology

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What is Laboratory Medicine?

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The Role and Scope of Clinical Microbiologist /Microbiology

• The Role:
• A physician concerned with diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infections
• Works at the intersection of hospital care and community-level disease control
• Microbial pathologists are frontline warriors against infections
• Scope of Clinical Microbiology:
• A diagnostic pillar in the diagnosis of infectious diseases
• Functions include:
• Detecting and identifying pathogens
• Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
• Leading antimicrobial stewardship
• Guiding infection prevention and control (IPC)
• Clinical review of inpatients and outpatients
• Patient safety and surveillance/control of infectious diseases

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Understanding Infectious Diseases

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Public Health as a Broader Lens

• Aims at population-level disease prevention and health promotion
• Focuses on five core domains:

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The Power of Integration: The COVID-19 Example

• COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the synergy of:
• Microbiologists identifying variants via genomic sequencing
• Clinicians managing severe cases
• Public health experts implementing policies and containment measures
• This integration is vital for effective disease response

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The Microbial World

• Microorganisms are microscopic life forms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa)
• Microbes predated plants/animals, existing >3 billion years
• Plants/animals likely evolved from microbial ancestors
• Essential to human survival; vital in health, agriculture, biotechnology
• Human body contains more microbial cells than human cells
• Only ~1,400 microbial species cause human infectious diseases

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Antimicrobial Resistance – A Global to Local Threat

• AMR existed naturally before human antibiotic use; now a top global health threat
• 4.95 million deaths linked to AMR in 2019 (highest mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa)
• Nigeria's crisis: >80% E. coli resistance to common antibiotics; rising carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella
• Northern Nigeria: Disproportionate impact due to weak labs, poor awareness, unregulated antibiotics
• Dominant threats: MDR Gram-negatives (Klebsiella, E. coli, Pseudomonas) in hospitals/communities
• Solution: One Health approach—stewardship, diagnostics, regulation, public education

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Classification of Diseases Across Medical Disciplines

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Classifications of Infectious Diseases

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The Epidemiologic Triad: Understanding Disease Transmission Through a Classic Model

• Three core elements; Host, Agent & Environment must interact for infectious disease transmission to occur
• The model guides outbreak investigation and control, helping target prevention through vaccination (host), treatment (agent) & environmental sanitation
• While ideal for acute infectious diseases, the triad has limitations in explaining chronic and multifactorial conditions, prompting adaptation in modern epidemiology

The Epidemiologic Triad

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Measures of Disease Severity and Impact:

Infectivity, Pathogenicity & Virulence

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Ranking of Infection by Infectivity, Pathogenicity, and Virulence

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Breaking the “chain of infection” to controlling the spread of Infectious Diseases

• Eliminate the source of infection through isolation, treatment, environmental sanitation, or animal reservoir control
• Interrupt transmission routes using hand hygiene, masks, safe food handling, and vector control methods
• Strengthen host defenses via vaccination & preventive medications for high-risk populations

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Strengthening Public Health Through the Infectious Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) Framework in Nigeria

• IDSR is a unified surveillance framework adopted by Nigeria to detect, report & respond to priority diseases across all levels of the health system
• It ensures early warning and outbreak control by linking community-level reporting to national authorities using standardized case definitions and tools
• Challenges remain, including weak laboratory infrastructure, underreporting, and workforce gaps; but recent digital innovations like eIDSR offer promising improvements

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Historical Context, Evolution, Current Schedule, Challenges and Future Direction of Nigeria’s Immunization Program

• 1956: Immunization began with smallpox control
• 1978: EPI launched, targeting 6 diseases
• 1990s: Peak RI coverage at 81.5%, then sharp decline by 2003 (trust/system failures)
• New vaccines like HPV (2023-24), Men5CV (2024), and malaria R21 (pilot in Bayelsa/Kebbi) have been introduced
• Nigeria became the first country to deploy Men5CV globally & vaccinated 12 million girls with HPV
• Nigeria leads Africa in zero-dose children (2.1 million) due to insecurity, weak cold chains, poor health worker coverage & significant reporting gaps in high-burden regions

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• "The Big Catch-Up" and Zero Dose Learning Hub (ZDLH) aim to:
• Improve immunization coverage
• Reduce missed communities
• Strengthen surveillance
• Supported by Gavi and partners
• Call for action:
• Increase domestic financing (34.2% rise in immunization budget, 2019-2023)
• Utilize BHCPF
• Leverage sWAP for sustainable vaccine financing and delivery

Historical Context, Evolution, Current Schedule, Challenges and Future Direction of Nigeria’s Immunization Program (II)

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SECTION III: MY CONTRIBUTION TO CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY, INFECTIOUS DISEASES & ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

MY EARLY CLINICAL JOURNEY:

• Started at General Hospital Katsina (Internship)
• Rotations: Surgery, Paediatrics, Internal Medicine, O&G
• Key mentors: Dr. Sabiu Liadi, Dr. Abdulmajid (lasting impact on me)
• Later served at Ingawa & Babbar Ruga General Hospitals (Katsina)
• Managed cases: leprosy, TB, vesico-vaginal fistula

THE BIRTH OF A MICROBIOLOGIST:

• Sat for postgraduate pathology exams (NPMCN & WACP Primaries) during NYSC
• Trained at UMTH Maiduguri (Resident → Senior Resident) under Prof. SB Zailani & Prof. GB Galadima
• Elected President, ARD-UMTH
• Began career as clinical microbiologist in Maiduguri
• Gained professional growth & resilience amid insecurity

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Case 1: A Case That Changed Me - Leprosy & HIV

Photomicrograph showing resistant genes

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Case 2: The ICU Wake-Up Call: An ESBL Alert

• Sepsis patient failed standard antibiotics
• Culture revealed ESBL-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae
• Not isolated: Repeated cases with different resistant organisms emerged
• Triggered a 6-month study:
• 439 isolates collected
• 39.5% ESBL producers
• Key realization: AMR is not a future threat; it was already here

Distribution of ESBL Genes (SHV, TEM and CTX-M) among ESBL positive Isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae

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A New Beginning in Sokoto

MY MOTHER’S PLEA AND A NEW BEGINNING:

• After the Boko Haram attack on Giwa Barracks, my mother said: “I’d rather see you alive than receive your corpse”
• Relocated to Sokoto (2014); becoming its first clinical microbiologist
• Received my appointment through a WhatsApp message, thank God for satellite internet and appreciation to Prof I A Mungadi & Muhammad Sidi Kabir

BUILDING SYSTEMS IN SOKOTO:

• Facilitated the introduction of clinical microbiology diagnostics & molecular tools at UDUTH
• Established residency training in UDUTH; got full accreditation for WACP & NPMCN
• Worked with Prof Kaoje to champion IPC, hand hygiene & stewardship
• Served in hospital committees, including the A&E renovation taskforce
• Earned a commendation letter for quality work done under tight resources

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Letter of Commendation from UMTH as Acting HOD in 2013

Letter of Commendation from UDUTH in 2020

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Case 3: A Boy, an Abattoir & a Missed Diagnosis

• 14-year-old boy presented with Ulcerative skin lesions & septic features due to exposure to cattle carcasses at abattoir
• Missed signs: Malignant pustule, massive edema (cutaneous anthrax)
• No lab confirmation (culture/PCR) due to delayed recognition → death within 72 hours
• Incorrect treatment: Ceftriaxone (ineffective) vs. ciprofloxacin/doxycycline (first-line)
• The case coincided with a confirmed anthrax outbreak in Niger State (2023), yet local awareness and preparedness were lacking
• I most salute the courage of my colleague & friend from Paediatrics, Dr. Khadijat Omeneke Isezuo who invited us for the postmortem review of this patient
• We made a postmortem diagnosis of a probable case of cutaneous anthrax & raised clinicians' awareness
• Lesson: The tragedy shows the urgent need for One Health integration, improved diagnostic capacity, surveillance, and clinician awareness

Illustration of the progression of cutaneous lesions on the left leg, including a malignant pustule with a developing satellite lesion to a vesiculobullous eruptions and finally a marked brawny oedema of the lower limb

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Case 4: A Girl’s Silent Struggle - Fungal Mycetoma

• 11-year-old girl from Illela presented with pelvic nodular discharges
• Cause: Thorn injury while gathering firewood
• Initial misdiagnosis: Suspected TB or cancer
• Final diagnosis: Eumycetoma (fungal mycetoma)
• Treatment: Ketoconazole → full recovery
• Impact: Establishment of a dedicated mycology bench in Sokoto

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National Mycology Contributions

• I collaborated with Prof. Rita Oladele to launch fungal screenings
• As a medical mycology collaborator, I participated in two seminal surveys:
• Nigeria/Ghana audit: Found <11% of labs had trained mycologists
• Africa-wide survey: Revealed lack of diagnostics for Aspergillosis and Pneumocystis pneumonia in most countries
• Both studies, supported by CDC and GAFFI & laid the groundwork for national and continental fungal surveillance systems
• We conducted Nigeria’s largest cryptococcal antigenemia survey in advanced HIV
• Sokoto had 2nd highest prevalence
• Also screened for histoplasmosis; Sokoto recorded 2nd lowest prevalence

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Distribution of Cryptococcal antigenemia across the six geopolitical regions of Nigeria

Distribution of Histoplasmosis from urine from five geopolitical regions of Nigeria

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Case 5: A Woman Bleeds from Everywhere

– Disseminated Gonococcal Infection (DGI)

• 30-year-old patient presented with uncontrolled bleeding (nose, gums, surgical site)
• Initial suspicion: Viral hemorrhagic fever → ruled out (all tests negative)
• Key action: Culture sent due to high clinical suspicion
• Shocking result:
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolated
• Pan-resistant (susceptible only to meropenem)
• Management:
• IV meropenem
• Blood transfusions & supportive care
• Outcome: Full recovery
• Significance: Likely Nigeria’s first documented disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI) with bleeding presentation

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Case 6: The Silent Outbreak - Acinetobacter baumannii

• 2022: I identified an unusual antimicrobial susceptibility profile from a urology ward patient, while leading a routine laboratory bench review at the medical microbiology of our tertiary hospital
• Index case: Urology ward patient with extensive resistance (including carbapenems)
• Outbreak scope:
• 6 confirmed cases + 2 environmental isolates
• Resistance profile: Sensitive only to colistin/tigecycline
• Genes: ESBL (blaTEM, blaSHV) detected
• Root cause: Lapses in catheter care/disinfection → intra-ward transmission
• Containment:
• Cohorting
• IPC training
• Ward closure
• Significance: First confirmed MDR A. baumannii outbreak in Sokoto

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Case 7: Discovery of New Pathogens

• Through Dr Ahmed Olowo-Okere, we collaborated with French partners to identify a novel bacterium: Dietzia massiliensis
• First to sequence Paenalcaligenes suwonensis with bla_VIM-5 gene
• These cases remind us that even rare pathogens must not go unnoticed

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SECTION IV: MY CONTRIBUTION TO FIELD EPIDEMIOLOGY, SURVEILLANCE, OUTBREAK INVESTIGATION, IMMUNIZATION, RESEARCH GRANTS, RESEARCH COLLABORATIONS AND GLOBAL HEALTH

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Arboviral Outbreak in Sokoto

Mr. Vice Chancellor, Ladies & Gentlemen;

• 2014: Sokoto witnessed mysterious high fever cases with nosebleeds; Initial suspicions: severe malaria or Lassa fever
• I led a team from NCDC/NFELTP that investigated this outbreak which revealed that it was Dengue and West Nile virus, marking the first arboviral outbreak ever documented in Sokoto State
• Through vector control, diagnostics, and risk communication, we successfully contained the outbreak; demonstrating the importance of differential diagnosis in febrile illnesses

• Mohammed Y, Obi IF, Aniaku EC, Adebayo OJ, Shehu AU, Saleh F, Yashe RU, Aliyu N, Ayanleke HB, Danmafara AA. An Outbreak of Arboviral Infection in a Region with Background Malaria Endemicity from Northwestern Nigeria: An Investigation Report. West Afr J Med 2021 29; 38(10):993-998. PMID: 34856775

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Polio Eradication Efforts

(AFENET-NSTOP)

Hepatitis B Birth Dose Improvement Project (AFENET/US CDC)

• Supported surveillance & immunization in hard-to-reach areas (Sokoto, Katsina, Zamfara)
• Mapped zero-dose children, trained vaccinators & improved microplanning
• Contributed to Nigeria’s polio-free certification (WHO, 25 Aug 2020) after 4 years without wild poliovirus (WPV1)

• Led HepB-BD & Td vaccination initiative in Adamawa (2021-2022)
• Increased HepB-BD coverage from 2.6% to 61.8%
• Boosted Td2+ coverage from 20.4% to 26.9%
• Awarded US CDC Country Global Health Director’s Partnership Award (2023)

Receiving Yellow Fever Vaccine during Field Supervision

Award from the US CDC

• As National Coordinator for Gavi’s ZDLH, I led implementation research in Bauchi, Sokoto, Kano, and Borno. We identified that:
• 33.6% of children 12–23 months were zero-dose
• Only 16.3% of caregivers had decision-making power
• 75.2% lacked formal education
• This emphasized the role of gender, social norms, & economicn immunization inequity

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Zero Dose Learning Hub (ZDLH)

FINDINGS

KNOWLEDGE TRANSLATION

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Findings: Zero Dose Children from Four States

Sokoto, Kano, Borno and Bauchi, August 2024

With Senate Chief Whip- Senator Monguno with ZDLH team

With Dr Heidi (Gavi) and

my Zero Dose Learning Hub family, AFENET

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Scholarships and Research Grants I Won

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Certificate and Award

My International Grants & Research Collaboration

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Global Public Health (I)

• My journey from a local microbial pathologist to a global health advocate has been shaped by meaningful international engagements, collaborative research, & technical leadership
• Global initiatives: contributed to WHO/Africa CDC frameworks on:
• AMR
• HPV vaccination
• Emergency preparedness
• Genomic surveillance
• National Roles: Member: AMR TWG (NCDC); Member: Routine Immunization TWG (NPHCDA)

Africa HPV Forum, Addis Ababa

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20^th ICID Cape Town as a panelist

• International Representation
• 20th ICID (Cape Town, 2024)
• 8th Global Symposium on HSR (Nagasaki)
• Africa HPV Forum (Addis Ababa)
• Promoted DNA methylation assays for cervical cancer
• Key Regional/Global Engagements
• REVIVE Clinical Trials (Victoria Falls)
• Zero Dose Learning Hub (Kampala)
• BARNARDS Neonatal AMR Study (London)
• One Health Workshop (Nairobi)
• Hajj Medical Mission (Mecca, 2017)

Global Public Health (II)

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Global Public Health (III)

• Worldwide Antimicrobial Resistance National / International Network Group (WARNING) Initiative
• Global AMR collaboration: 295 experts from 115 countries
• Co-developed Ten Golden Rules for antibiotic stewardship:
• Promote stewardship
• Prioritize rapid diagnostics
• Use evidence-based durations
• Implement One Health approach
• WARNING Collaborators (incl. M. Yahaya). World J Emerg Surg. 2023;18:50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13017-023-00518-3
• Impact of WARNING
• Bridges clinical microbiology, infection control & health policy
• Addresses AMR in resource-limited settings
• Promotes hospital-level accountability for antimicrobial use
• Informs global antibiotic practice frameworks

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• You are custodians of tomorrow’s scientific integrity
• The journey is non-linear: Expect ups/downs, doubts, failures
• Embrace them as a part of your ODYSSEY
• Stay curious, seek knowledge that challenges assumptions
• Uphold ethics > expedience, respect data, advocate for equity
• Whether in a rural clinic, genomic lab, or field assignment; your work matters
• The Petri dish is small but pivotal: Holds keys to saving millions of lives
• Every microscope slide: A window to transform lives
• Stay humble, yet lead boldly:
• With vision
• With integrity
• With compassion

MESSAGE TO MENTEES

(Present & Future)

"وَإِذْ تَأَذَّنَ رَبُّكُمْ لَئِن شَكَرْتُمْ لَأَزِيدَنَّكُمْ"�(سورة إبراهيم، الآية 7)

​

"And when your Lord proclaimed, ‘If you are grateful, I will certainly give you more."—Surah Ibrahim (14:7)

​

"حَتَّىٰ إِذَا بَلَغَ أَشُدَّهُ وَبَلَغَ أَرْبَعِينَ سَنَةً قَالَ رَبِّ أَوْزِعْنِي أَنْ أَشْكُرَ نِعْمَتَكَ الَّتِي أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيَّ وَعَلَىٰ وَالِدَيَّ…"�(سورة الأحقاف، الآية 15)

​

"…When he reaches maturity at forty years, he says, ‘My Lord, inspire me to always be grateful for Your favors which You have blessed me and my parents with…’"—Surah Al-Ahqaf (46:15),

Guiding Principles in Life

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• To the students and young scientists here today: this lecture is also for you. If my story proves anything, it is that purpose is rarely a straight line
• Embrace the terrain, no matter how tortuous and let curiosity be your compass and let service be your destination
• With gratitude to Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, my mentors, and the communities that have shaped me, I begin this odyssey anew, not as an endpoint, but as a call to continued collaboration in the noble pursuit of health for all in Sokoto, Nigeria, Africa and globally
• Mr. Vice Chancellor, Ladies and Gentlemen, this is my Story!

Conclusion

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Acknowledgements

• All praise is due to Allah (SWT), the Most Merciful, for granting me health, knowledge, and the strength to reach this milestone
• My late parents: Alhaji Muhammad Yahya Abubakar & Hajiya Rabi’atu Abubakar—may Allah grant them Jannah
• Teachers & mentors:
• Professors Zailani Bello, Galadima Gadzama, A.H. Rafindadi, Lawal S. Bilbis
• Ismaila A. Mungadi, Aminu U. Kaoje, Ndadilnasiya E. Waziri, Patrick Nguku
• Gates Foundation mentors: Yusuf Yusufari, Avuwa Oteri, Abdulmumin Saad
• Family: My wives, children, siblings—for unwavering support
• Friends & colleagues:
• Professor Manga M. Manga, Farouk K. Umar, Mohammed A. Jikamshi, Mustapha M. Jikamshi, Umar M. Mukhtar, Bello A. Bello, Umar Shittu, Professor Abubakar Aminu, Engineer Abubakar Abbas, Dr Nubwa Medugu, Dr Batula Daggash, Dr El Yakub, Dr Zara Modibbo
• Academic circle: Professor Hudu A. Shuaibu, Dr Zainu Sabitu, Professor Abdulgaffar O. Jimoh, Dr Khadijah O. Isezuo, Mahmoud M. Dalhat, Hajiya Hauwa J. Bako
• Mentees: Dr Jibril Abubakar, Dr Yahaya Saminu, Dr Abdussalam, Dr Khadijah Dada, Dr Egbe Oloche, Dr Muhammad Sakaba, Dr Matthew Habila
• AFENET & Zero Dose Learning Hub:
• Dr Nuruddeen Aliyu, Dr Hyelshilni Waziri, Adam Attahiru, Margeret Wisdom, Nememma Agu, Fiyidi Mikailu, Amal Oladimeji, Success Abah
• Dr Aminu Shittu, Dr Ahmed Olowo-Okere—for exceptional friendship and teamwork
• To all unnamed supporters: Your goodwill shaped this journey
• Divine gratitude: Every success is a blessing—may we remain thankful

WITH PROFOUND GRATITUDE

To my esteemed mentors and guiding lights—

Prof. L.S. Bilbis and Prof. Sule Saidu; THANK YOU for shaping my mind, fueling my curiosity, and inspiring excellence at every turn.

Your wisdom echoes in every achievement.

GUIDED BY GREATNESS

• I stand on the shoulders of mentors who taught me, challenged me, and celebrated my growth
• I am Forever grateful

MY PROFESSIONAL COMPASS

Special appreciation goes to my mentors and inspirations—Dr. Patrick Nguku, Dr. Ndadilnasiya Waziri, Dr. Aminu Magashi, and Dr. Simon Antara; for their guidance and impact on my professional growth

• To Allah (SWT): For health, knowledge, and strength to reach this milestone
• To my beloved late parents, Alhaji Muhammad Yahya Abubakar and Hajiya Rabi’atu Abubakar, whose sacrifices, prayers, and unwavering support have been my foundation, I pray that for every drop of patience, love, and wisdom you poured into my journey, may Allah reward you with the highest ranks of Jannah
• To my spouses, Salma Muhammad Galalain and Surayya Umar Lawal who have been my pillar of support, encouragement and love I say thank you for your love, support, patience and understanding
• To my siblings, Late Ahmad, Usman, Asmau, Abdullahi, Habiba, Mahmud, Abubakar and Zahir, I appreciate your support
• Special appreciation to my children, Muhammad (Faris), Farid, Rabi’ah (Huda), Faruk, Yahaya (Yaman) and Othman

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ROOTED IN FAITH, NURTURED BY FAMILY

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References (Selected)

1. World Health Organization (WHO) Definition Of Health - Public Health [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Jun 23]. Available from: https://www.publichealth.com.ng/world-health-organizationwho-definition-of-health/
2. Yahaya Mohammed, Sabitu Muhammad Zainu, Mohammed Mohammed Manga. Guinea worm eradication: the need for sustained surveillance using One Health approach amidst COVID-19 pandemic and worsening armed conflicts in Nigeria. PAMJ One Health 2022; 8(19). Available from https://doi:10.11604/pamj-oh.2022.8.19.36319. ISSN: 2707-2800.
3. A & R’s Recent Advances in Medical Microbiology (2024),...Mohammed Yahaya. First Edition
4. Yahaya Mohammed, Baffa Sule Ibrahim, Salma Muhammad Galalain, Mahmoud M. Dalhat, Patrick Nguku. Antimicrobial resistance surveillance system in Nigeria: Suggested models. Sahel Med J 2018; 21:179-80. ISSN 1118-8561DOI: 10.4103/smj.smj_17_17
5. Yahaya Mohammed, Galadima Bala Gadzama, Sambo Bello Zailani, Aaron Oladipo Aboderin. Characterization of extended spectrum beta lactamase from clinical isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species from a teaching hospital in north-eastern, Nigeria. Journal of Clinical Diagnosis and Research 2016; 10(2):7-10. ISSN online: ISSN - 0973-709X, ISSN Print: 2249-782X.
6. Mohammed Y, Muhammad AS, Zainu SM, Jimoh AK, Olowo‑Okere A, Ogunyinka IA, et al. Outbreak of multidrug‑resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in a tertiary health center from northwestern Nigeria. Ann Afr Med 2024; 23:40-5. https://doi.org/10.4103/aam.aam_141_23.

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