Chapter 1
The Lexicon and Sentence Structure
The Units of Syntactic Analysis
Constituents 成分
the component parts of a grammatical sentence.
Ways to represent the structure of a sentence (p. 34)
(2) phrase structure rules
(3) labeled brackets
句子主要由三個成分組成
能夠移動的單位必須是一個constituent. (p.35 例句3)
Aux
NP
VP
Two types of questions
yes-no questions
constituent questions
the answer to the question will be a constituent.
SAI
Subject Auxiliary Inversion
the process to form a non-embedded yes-no question
by moving the auxiliary to the left of the subject.
words為ultimate constituents
一般稱之為constituents
均指phrasal categories
Words and Phrases
Words
Phrases
有lexical meaning
由word組成，沒有lexical meaning
在lexicon裏為詞彙檔
屬於syntax層次，並非詞彙檔
必須有詞性
其詞性由head決定
The syntactic category of a word
determines its distribution
V
N
Predicates and Arguments
Students protested vehemently.
Grammatical category
a plural noun
a past tense verb
an adverb
Grammatical function
argument and the subject
of protested
predicate
adjunct
試討論 Jeeves is envious of Bertie 的論元結構
Predicates and Arguments
Adjuncts
附加語
the optional phrasal constituents
an expression which provides additional information
about the time, place or manner of an event. (p.40)
Subcategorization of verbs
Predicates and Arguments
句子結構裏的兩大成分
arguments
predicates
論元：
謂語
主語
賓語
述語
可以是以動詞為主的VP結構，也可以是句子。
句子
主語
(NP)
謂語
(VP)
述語
賓語
(NP)
External NP
VP-internal NP
Predicates and Arguments
Argument structure in logic
從語意的角度看，每個句子都算是一個命題proposition。
takes two arguments
m (for Maigret)
p (for Poirot)
predicates.
Intransitive verbs correspond to one-place predicates：
they take only one argument.
Predicates and Arguments
Argument structure in natural language
不同的predicate 會有不同的argument structure，其論元結構通常因predicate所需的
論元數量而定。
主語的論元
External NP
賓語的論元
VP-internal NP
位於VP結構內
試比較以下兩句的論元結構有何不同？
Poirot is restless.
Poirot is envious.
predicate為one-place predicate
predicate為two-place predicate
The second argument is a implicit argument.
何謂implicit argument（隱形論元）？
He bought Jane a detective story.
He bought a detective story.
論元數
three-place predicate
應帶有一個implicit argument
試比較以下兩句的論元結構有何不同？
Miss Marple is conscious of the problem.
Sir Galahad is conscious.
one-place predicate
two-place predicate
Predicates and Arguments
Theta Theory
verbs 與arguments之間的關係，可以表現在theta roles上面。
常見的theta roles類別要注意（見p. 49）
試說明下列句子的theta roles以及thematic structure。
Maigret killed Poirot.
Maigreti said that hei was ill.
the verb ‘kill’ assigns two theta roles
subject ‘Maigret’ 🡺 agent
object ‘Poirot’ 🡺 patient
因此，’kill’ theta-marks its arguments.
subject
object
the verb ‘say’ assigns two theta roles
subject NP ‘Maigret’ 🡺 agent
object clause ‘that he was ill’ 🡺 theme
the subject NP’Maigret’ and the pronoun ‘he’ are coindexed.
subject
object
Predicates and Arguments
Theta criterion
Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role
Each theta role is assigned to one and only one argument.
The Projection Principle
Lexical information is syntactically represented.
Lexical information to a large extent determines syntactic structure.
The assignment of Thematic Roles
Clausal arguments
finite clause, non-finite clause, small clause (verbless clause). (p.57)
1. Maigret believes [this story]NP
2. Maigret believes [that the taxi driver is innocent.]finite clause
3. Maigret believes [the taxi driver to be innocent.]non-finite clause
4. Maigret believes [the taxi driver innocent.]small clause
Complementizers : that, for
[That Galahad had left] is very surprising.
[For Galahad to have left] is very surprising.
The assignment of Thematic Roles
Small Clauses
意義上等同一個完整的子句，結構上卻缺乏任何動詞，
成分之間的關係緊密，因此，任何不屬於small clause裡的成分，
不能任意出現在其間。
* The chief inspector wants [ Maigret [ very much ] in his office ]small clause
The assignment of Thematic Roles
Expletives
所有的argument 一定要有theta role，但有些成分佔住argument位置，
卻沒有theta role，例如expletives。
Expletives are elements in NP positions which are not arguments and to
which no theta role is assigned. (P.60, 例59a-c)
試說明Adjunct 與 Expletive的差別。
Adjunct有meaning Expletive沒有meaning
被動句的by phrase可否稱為expletive？
被動句的by phrase（表agent）雖然不佔argument的位置，卻有theta role (agent)
因此不可稱為expletive
The assignment of Thematic Roles
Sometimes, the sentential subject is extraposed and is in construction
with an expletive.
It worried Maigret [ that Poirot should have left.]extraposed subject
I consider it odd [ that Poirot should have left.]extraposed object
The assignment of Thematic Roles
The expletive it 可以取代clause但不能取代NP。 (p.63, 66a-b)
[An announcement about the robbery] worried Maigret.
It worried Maigret [an announcement about the robbery.]
*
The assignment of Thematic Roles
There and Existential Sentences
There 與 it 都是expletives
在結構上，there所代替的subject NP必須是個indefinite NP（無定名詞組）
而且動詞必須是個one-place predicate（intransitive verb）
The assignment of Thematic Roles
There與it的比較：(p.64, 71a-c)
there
it
皆為expletives，對句意並無影響
代替子句
代替indefinite NP
皆無法assign thematic role
皆為fill up the subject position
verb必須是one-place predicate
X
extraposition結構
existential sentence
The assignment of Thematic Roles
Main Verbs and Auxiliaries
verbs can be divided into two sets:
(1) lexical verbs or main verbs
(2) auxiliaries.
The copula be, like auxiliaries, does not assign any thematic roles.
The Extended Projection Principle (EPP)
從expletives存在的意義看來
似乎是每個句子的subject位置不應是空的
句子沒有主語就不成句子。
EPP: every sentence must have a subject.
Thematic Roles: Further Discussion
‘ask’與’inquire’的比較
Both semantically select a ‘question’ type of complement.
Categorial selection (c-selection):
ask 🡺 clausal complement / NP
inquire 🡺 clausal complement
I asked
I inquied
*
Thematic Roles: Further Discussion
The Subject Theta Role
Subject 的論旨角色(thematic role)往往會因為object的不同而有所改變。
John broke last week.
experienecr
a leg
a vase
agent
The theta role assigned to the external argument is usually assigned compositionally
(it is determined by the semantics of the verb and other VP constituents).
Therefore, this kind of theta-marking is called indirect theta-marking.
Additional Reading
Raford, Andrew (2004) English Syntax:
An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Chap. 2: Words)