POLITICAL SCIENCE

MRS.NITA MALIK

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

HANS RAJ MAHILA MAHA VIDYALAYA, JALANDHAR

Introduction

• Political Science, traditionally, begins and ends with the state. So considered, it is the study of the state and government. The modern view of Political Science lays emphasis on its being the study of power and authority. Political Science also explains its ever-widening scope. Its scope includes study of the state and the study of political system; covering the study of government, study of power; study of man and his political behaviour and study of political issues which influence politics directly or indirectly.

Meaning of Political Science

• Political Science is that part of social science which deals with the foundations of the state and the principles of the government. According to J W Garner, “Politics begins and ends with the state.” Similarly, R G Gettel wrote that Politics is the “study of the state in the past, present and future”. Harold J Laski stated in the same vein that the study of Politics concerns itself with the life of men and women in relation to organized state. Thus as a social science, Political Science deals with those aspects of individuals in society which relate to their activities and organizations devoted to seeking of power, resolution of conflicts and all these, within an overall framework of the rule and law as laid down by the state.

Traditional Definition of Political Science�

• All the concepts of political science before the nineteenth century belong to the traditional view. And the entire political scientists at that time is called as traditional political scientists.
• According to traditional political scientists, it deals with the state, Government, and other political institutions.
• An American Professor Garner once said that ‘political science begins and ends with the state’.  In his view, political science is the social science that determines some formula about the origin and form of the state, the shape, nature, and history of political institutions, and political progress and development.
• So in traditional view it discusses the origin, nature, ideals, and goals, of the state.

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• Political science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is, and a politico-ethical discussion of what the state should be.
• R.G Gettel,Political Science investigates the phenomena of the government as political economy deals with wealth, biology with life, algebra with numbers, and geometry with space and magnitude
• John Robert Seeley
• Political Science is that part of the social science which treats of the foundations of the sate and principles of the government
• Paul JanetPolitical science deals with the origin, development, purpose, and all political problems of the states.
• GariesPolitical science is concerned with the state and with conditions essential for its development.
• Lord ActonIf you read the above definitions of traditional political scientists carefully then you have noticed that every definition of political science is concentrated with state and government.
• So it is clear that in the traditional view, the field of discussion of political science was confined to the state and the government.

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Modern Definition of Political Science�

• The flow of international events now has a profound effect on individual and national life. For this reason, state activity cannot be neutral to the flow of international events and international customs.
• The social and political relations of the socialized people, the relations of the state with the individual under the state, the relations of the social institution with the individual, and the interrelationships between different states, etc. are included in the modern view of political science.

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Contd…�

• Politics is the study of Influence and the influential
• LasswellPolitical Science concern itself with the life of men in relation to organized state
• LaskiDavid Easton defines political science as an Authoritative allocation of values. He has not seen it as a discussion of state institutions but presents this as a discussion of political system or process.
• Politics is the struggle for power or the influencing of those power.
• Max Weber

Nature of Political Science

• Political Theory, Political Philosophy, Politics, or Political Science?
• The origin of the concept of the state is the need for human interaction. Political Theory includes various views and interpretations about the origin and development of the state, its nature, and functions, organizations, and subsidiaries.
• Some basic questions about the nature and purpose of the state take place in the discussion of Political Philosophy.

Contd…

• Although the name of politics is used more for the sake of popularity, political scientists are willing to use the name of political science.
• Many people want to use the name political science in order to ensure that the discussion of politics does not become a futile policy, but prevails in practical politics.
• Political science, like science, has the potential for observation, experience, analysis, and classification. It teaches us how it is possible to analyze political and humanitarian issues in the light of empirical and observational methods.

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Changing Meaning of Political Science

• The term Politics is derived from the Greek word polis which means city-state. That is why many commentators, as you saw, rightly define Politics in terms of the state or government. However, this definition does not exhaust the meaning of Politics. Politics also deals with power. Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan define Political Science as “the study of shaping and sharing of power”. In a word, Politics deals with both state and power. However, the power that Political Science deals with is, more often than not, the legitimate power. Since science is the systematic study of any phenomenon through observation and experiment, it follows that Political Science studies the state and power in all their aspects. You will learn more about the state and power later in this lesson.

Contd...

• Political Science deals with both empirical facts and normative issues. Facts are in the domain of “what is” and value preferences are in the domain of “what should be.” For example, if somebody says India is a parliamentary democracy, he or she is making a statement of empirical fact. This is what India today actually is. But if she or he were to make a statement like the one that India should switch over to presidential form of democracy, the statement would be a normative one. Political Science is not satisfied with describing the state of affairs, it wants to change or improve upon them. Empirical statements are true or false by virtue of what observation shows to be the case. Evaluative statements are ethical/moral imperatives, which are often said not to be true or false in any sense at all. Formal statements (such as the propositions of mathematics) are true or false by virtue of the meanings of their constituent terms alone. Political Philosophy deals with formal statements. Political Science deals with empirical statements and also evaluates the existing political institutions, practices and focuses on how to improve them.

Growth of the Discipline of Political Science

• Systematic study of Politics started with the Greeks in the fourth century BC. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle used it in the most comprehensive sense. Aristotle called Politics a “master science”. For him, it comprised of not only the institutions of state or government but also family, property and other social institutions. Politics, for the Greeks, was an allencompassing activity. The ancient Greek view about Political Science was mainly ethical. In contrast, the ancient MODULE - 1 Notes 3 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Romans considered the legal aspect of Politics more important for their governance. Individual and the State During the Middle Ages, Political Science became a branch of religious order of the Church. Political authority was, then, subordinated to the authority of the Church.

• Normally a lay man associates Politics with party politics. But as students of Political Science, we know that Politics is much larger than that: it is systematic study of state and power.

Contd…

Contd...

• As the state grew in size and became more complex, Political Science acquired a realistic and secular (non-religious) approach. After the Industrial Revolution, the role of the State, which was limited to maintenance of law and order and providing defence against external aggression, underwent considerable changes with the emergence of the new economic system called capitalism. In the twentieth century, after the Second World War, the ‘behavioural approach’ offered a new dimension of Political Science. The behavioural movement in American Political Science in the 1950s and the 1960s placed a lot of emphasis on the ‘science’ part of Politics. It wanted to model Politics after the methods followed by natural sciences like Physics, Botany, etc. The behaviouralists built theory inductively from empirical propositions. Those who follow inductive method would come to the conclusion after study, observation and experiment. For example, when some behaviouralists saw African-Americans (Blacks) of the southern United States of America (USA) voted for the Democratic Party of the United States, they came to the conclusion that the African-Americans do vote for the Democrats. This behavioural approach shifted the focus of its study from political institutions and structures to their functions. It placed stress on political activity and the behaviour of men and women who control these institutions. It replaced the study of ideas by the study of facts, evidence and behaviour. It considered political activity manifested in behaviour as the true subject of Political Science.

Contd...

• A political activity may be in the form of an individual contesting an election. It may be the activity of a group seeking the adoption of a particular policy in its favour by the government. As different people pursue different interests, such activities tend to generate disagreement, competition and conflict. But the distinctive quality of Politics is that it includes physical coercion or force by the government. It may and usually does involve the persuasive influence and effort of the government to resolve conflicts through its balanced policy decisions. Politics is also viewed as a process whereby individuals, groups or communities seek to achieve their specific but conflicting goals. Politics, as the process, seeks to allocate resources (Easton calls it, values) authoritatively. Politics, as the study of structures, institutions, processes and activities, recognizes the possibility of the use of power. The Marxist approach, which is derived from the writings of the nineteenth century German philosopher Karl Marx, views Politics as a study of irreconcilable conflicts between the two classes ‘haves’ (those who have private property, or simply the rich) and the ‘have-nots’ (those who do not have any private property, or simply the poor); in other words, the exploiters and the exploited. The emancipation of the have-nots will come only through a revolution which would put an end to the institution of private property, thus changing the class society to the classless society.

Contd...

• But Politics, as against the Marxist view, has another view also, the liberal view, according to which MODULE - 1 Notes 4 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Individual and the State Politics is considered as an as effort for conciliation and accommodation to bring about rule of order and Justice. Incidentally, the Marxist view of politics comes as a reaction to the liberal view of politics.

Distinction between Political Science and Politics

• The terms ‘Political Science’ and ‘Politics’ are often used interchangeably. However, the distinction between the two needs to be understood. Some scholars define Politics to be “the science and art of government.” But this is only a part of the total explanation of the subject of Political Science. Now-a-days the term Politics is used to mean the problems of the citizens interacting with the instrument of political power in one form or the other. Sometimes, Politics was and still is used as the technique of compromise or the method to capture power and retain it. According to many political scientists, the study of Political Science comprises theory of the state, concept of sovereign power, forms and functions of government, making and execution of laws, elections, political parities, rights and duties of citizens, policy functions and study of welfare activities of the State and government.

Contd...

• The terms ‘Political Science’ and ‘Politics’ are often used interchangeably. However, the distinction between the two needs to be understood. Some scholars define Politics to be “the science and art of government.” But this is only a part of the total explanation of the subject of Political Science. Now-a-days the term Politics is used to mean the problems of the citizens interacting with the instrument of political power in one form or the other. Sometimes, Politics was and still is used as the technique of compromise or the method to capture power and retain it.

Scope Of Political Science

According to many political scientists, the study of Political Science comprises theory of the state, concept of sovereign power, forms and functions of government, making and execution of laws, elections, political parities, rights and duties of citizens, policy functions and study of welfare activities of the State and government.

Role of the State

• The term ‘State’ in its modern sense was first used by Machiavelli (1469-1527), the Italian statesman. The study of the State has since remained the focal point for the political scientists. The State consists of four elements. These are: (a) the people; (b) the territory on which they live; (c) the government to rule and regulate the lives of the people and (d) sovereignty, which implies unrestricted authority to take decisions and manage its own affairs. You will read in detail about these four elements in the second lesson. The role and nature of the State have been interpreted differently. Modern western liberal thinking, about which you will study more in the fourth lesson, arose with the commerial (Mercantile) Revolution in Western Europe in the sixteenth century and became prominent with the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth century. These Revolutions brought into focus a new economic system called capitalism.

Market is a place where goods and services are sold and bought. It operates on the basis of demand and supply. Many people regard it as a self-regulating, self-correcting place, provided there is no interference by the state. Competition is the chief hallmark of market. Capitalism and market are considered two sides of the same coin.

Contd…

• The social group consisting of traders, merchants and businessmen and later the industrialists (also known as the bourgeois) was the major beneficiary of this system. The liberals emphasized that the consent of the people is the true basis of the state. Early liberal thinkers also considered the state as a ‘necessary evil’- an evil but necessary for the purpose of protecting the individual from the external and internal enemies. According to this view, that government is the best which governs the least. In other words, the state should be a ‘police state’ and hence a limited one. It should also be limited in a different sense: as John Locke, the famous English liberal philosopher of the seventeenth century, said it is there to protect the individual’s natural right to life, liberty and property

Contd…

Citizens and Government

• The government is the most important instrument of the State through which the latter realizes its objectives. Through its three organs i.e; the Legislature, the Executive and the MODULE - 1 Notes 7 Meaning and Scope of Political Science Judiciary, it makes laws and rules, implements them, maintains peace and order in the Individual and the State country and resolves clashes of interests. It also tries to ensure territorial integrity or unity of the country. Modern democratic governments perform many other functions for the development and welfare of citizens and the society, as a whole. This is especially so in a developing country like ours. The relationship between citizens and the government is reciprocal. The citizens are members of the State. The state recognizes certain rights of the citizens and in turn expects certain duties from them.

Liberty

• The term liberty is derived form the Latin word liber meaning free. Thus liberty means freedom. Freedom is of paramount importance for the development of an individual’s personality. Historically speaking, the term liberty was initially defined as absence of all restraints on an individual. This is known as the negative concept of liberty. Early liberalism championed negative liberty. John Stuart Mill, the nineteenth century English political philosopher, described, “Restraint as an evil”. Mill was especially worried about the restraints coming from the state and society.

Safeguards of Liberty

• Declaration of rights of the individuals in the Constitution is considered as an important safeguard of liberty. This way the government can be prevented from encroaching upon the freedoms of the people. Impartial judiciary is rightly called the watchdog of liberty. Without it the liberty of the individuals would be meaningless. Decentralization of powers is another important safeguard of liberty. History is witness to the fact that concentration of power has very often led to despotism. Separation of powers, i.e. the executive, the legislature and the judiciary being separate, is a great ally of liberty. Montesquieu said, “Power should be a check on power.” Rule of law or equality in the eyes of the law is also an important safeguard of liberty. This is the bulwark against discrimination based on caste, class, colour, creed, etc. A large measure of social justice or diffusion of social and economic privileges is a prerequisite for liberty. If privileges become the prerogative of the select few, then effective liberty would be denied to a vast majority. A well-knit party system is also indispensable for the preservation of liberty. All these institutional safeguards are inadequate to preserve liberty if the citizens themselves do not possess the proud spirit to preserve it. People should always be on their toes to ensure that their liberty is not encroached upon. Eternal vigilance, it has been rightly said, is the price of liberty.

Justice and its Relevance for Citizens and State

• The term Justice is derived from the Latin word jus, which means a bond. Thus the word Justice means joining or fitting. “Justice”, says E Barker, “is the reconciler and the synthesis of political values.”
• The best general definition of Justice is to “render to everyone his/her due.”

Justice and its Relationship with Liberty and Equality

• The nineteenth century scholars like Lord Acton and Alexis de Tocqueville considered liberty and equality as incompatible. They thought that too much of stress on equality would lead to the dilution of liberty. Many later scholars also agreed with them. Progressive taxation by the welfare state was considered violative of the liberty of the propertied people. However, it remained a fact that proceeds of tax went towards financing the programmes to ameliorate the plight of the poor, the unemployed, the needy, the handicapped and the aged. A largely egalitarian society was made possible by these programmes. In times of conflict like this, prevailing notion of Justice decides what should be the right mix of liberty and equality. Thus freedom and equality are two aspects of Justice. The ultimate objective of both freedom and equality is Justice.

Conclusion

• Political Science, traditionally, begins and ends with the state.
• It is the study of the state and government.
• It is also considered as the study of power and authority.

THANK YOU