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Chapter 6

The Standard �Trade Model

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Preview

Production possibilities, relative prices, relative supply, and relative demand
The terms of trade and welfare
Effects of economic growth
Effects of import tariffs
Effects of export subsidies

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Introduction

Standard trade model is a general model that includes Ricardian, specific factors, and Heckscher-Ohlin models as special cases.

Two goods, food (F) and cloth (C).
Each country’s PPF is a smooth and bowed-out curve, see Fig. 6-1.

Differences in labor services, labor skills, physical capital, land, and technology between countries cause differences in production possibility frontiers.

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Introduction

A country’s PPF determines its relative supply function.
National relative supply functions determine a world relative supply function, which along with world relative demand determines the equilibrium under international trade.
What a country produces depends on the relative price of cloth to food P_C/P_F.

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Fig. 6-1: Relative Prices Determine the Economy’s Output

An economy chooses its production of cloth Q_C and food Q_F to maximize the value of its output V = P_CQ_C + P_FQ_F, given the prices of cloth and food.

The slope of an isovalue line equals –(P_C/P_F).

An economy produces at point where PPF is tangent to the highest possible isovalue line.

The opportunity cost of cloth equals its relative price.

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Fig. 6-2: How an Increase in the Relative Price of Cloth Affects Relative Supply

An increase in the price of cloth relative to food P_C/P_F makes the isovalue line steeper. Production shifts from point Q¹ to point Q².

Supply of cloth relative to food Q_C/Q_F rises. Relative supply of cloth to food increases with the relative price of cloth to food.

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Relative Prices and Demand

The value of the economy’s consumption must equal the value of the economy’s production.

P_CD_C + P_FD_F = P_CQ_C + P_FQ_F = V

Assume that the economy’s consumption decisions may be represented as if they were based on the tastes of a single representative consumer.
An indifference curve represents combinations of cloth and food that leave the consumer equally well off (indifferent).

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Properties of Indifference Curves

Indifference curves

are downward sloping — if you have less cloth, then you must have more food to be equally satisfied.
that lie farther from the origin make consumers more satisfied — they prefer having more of both goods.
become flatter when they move to the right — with more cloth and less food, an extra yard of cloth becomes less valuable in terms of how many calories of food you are willing to give up for it.

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Fig. 6-3: Production, Consumption, and Trade in the Standard Model

Consumption choice is based on preferences and relative price of goods:

Economy consumes at point D where the isovalue line is tangent to the highest possible indifference curve.

Economy exports cloth — the quantity of cloth produced exceeds the quantity of cloth consumed — and imports food.

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Fig. 6-4: Effects of a Rise in the Relative Price of Cloth and Gains from Trade

An increase in the relative price of cloth P_C/P_F causes consumption choice to shift from point D¹ to point D². Relative demand for cloth to food falls as the relative price of cloth to food rises. An economy that exports cloth is better off when the price of cloth rises relative to the price of food. The isovalue lines become steeper and a higher indifference curve can be reached.

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Fig. 6-4: Effects of a Rise in the Relative Price of Cloth and Gains from Trade

If the economy cannot trade, the relative price of cloth to food is determined by the intersection of relative demand and relative supply for that country. Economy consumes and produces at point D³ where the indifference curve is tangent to the production possibilities frontier. This indifference curve lies below those that are possible under free trade.

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The Welfare Effects of Changes in the Terms of Trade

The terms of trade refers to the price of exports relative to the price of imports.

When a country exports cloth and the relative �price of cloth increases, the terms of trade rise.

Because a higher relative price for exports means that the country can afford to buy more imports, an increase in the terms of trade increases a country’s welfare.
A decline in the terms of trade decreases a country’s welfare.

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Fig. 6-5a: Equilibrium Relative Price with Trade and Associated Trade Flows

To determine the price of cloth relative to the price food, use relative supply and relative demand.

World supply of cloth relative to food at each relative price.

(Q_C+ Q_C^*)/(Q_F+ Q_F^*)

World demand for cloth relative to food at each relative price.

(D_C+ D_C^*)/(D_F+ D_F^*).

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Fig. 6-5b: Equilibrium Relative Price with Trade and Associated Trade Flows (cont.)

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The Effects of Economic Growth

Is economic growth in China good for the standard of living in the U.S.? Is growth in a country more or less valuable when it is integrated in the world economy?

The standard trade model gives us precise answers to these questions.

Growth is usually biased: it occurs in one sector more than others, causing relative supply to change.

Rapid growth has occurred in U.S. computer industries but relatively little growth has occurred in U.S. textile industries.
In the Ricardian model, technological progress in one sector causes biased growth.
In the Heckscher-Ohlin model, an increase in one factor of production causes biased growth.

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Fig. 6-6ab: Biased Growth

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Fig. 6-6c: Biased Growth (cont.)

Biased growth and the resulting change in relative supply causes a change in the terms of trade.

Biased growth in the cloth industry (in either the home or foreign country) will lower the price of cloth relative to the price of food and lower the terms of trade for cloth exporters.

Biased growth in the food industry (in either the home or foreign country) will raise the price of cloth relative to the price of food and raise the terms of trade for cloth exporters.

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Fig. 6-7ab: Biased Growth and World Relative Supply

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If biased growth occurs in the cloth industry, suppliers are more able and willing to sell cloth relative to food, so that the relative supply curve shifts right to represent an increase in the supply of cloth relative to the supply of food. In the new trade equilibrium, the relative quantity of cloth bought and sold increases and the price of cloth relative to the price of food decreases from (P_C/P_F)₁to (P_C/P_F)₂. If the home country exports cloth and imports food, the price of exports relative to the price of imports for the domestic country decreases.In other words, the terms of trade for the domestic country decreases.

If biased growth occurs in the food industry, suppliers are more able and willing to sell food relative to cloth, so that the relative supply curve shifts left to represent a decrease in the supply of cloth relative to the supply of food. In the new trade equilibrium, the relative quantity of food bought and sold increases (and the relative quantity of cloth bought and sold decreases) and the price of cloth relative to the price of food increases from (P_C/P_F)₁to (P_C/P_F)₂. If the domestic country exports cloth and imports food, the price of exports relative to the price of imports for the domestic country increases.In other words, the terms of trade for the domestic country increases.

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The Effects of Economic Growth

Export-biased growth is growth that expands a country’s production possibilities disproportionately in that country’s export sector.
Export-biased growth reduces a country’s terms of trade, reducing its welfare and increasing the welfare of foreign countries.
Import-biased growth is growth that expands a country’s production possibilities disproportionately in that country’s import sector.
Import-biased growth increases a country’s terms of trade, increasing its welfare and decreasing the welfare of foreign countries.

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Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing�Countries Hurt Advanced Nations?

The standard trade model predicts that import-biased growth in China would occur in sectors that compete with U.S. exports and reduce the U.S. terms of trade.

And thus reduce welfare in the U.S.

But the data indicates that changes in the U.S. terms of trade have been small with no clear trend over the last few decades.
The terms of trade for China have deteriorated over the past decade, suggesting their recent growth may have been export-biased.

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Fig. 6-8: Evolution of the Terms of Trade for the United States and China (1980–2011, 2000 = 100)

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Import Tariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RD

Import tariffs are taxes levied on imports.
Export subsidies are payments given to domestic producers that export.
Both policies influence the terms of trade and therefore national welfare.
Import tariffs and export subsidies drive a wedge between prices in world markets and prices in domestic markets.

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Fig. 6-9: Effects of a Food Tariff on the Terms of Trade

If the home country imposes a tariff on food imports, the price of cloth relative to the price of food falls for domestic consumers.

Domestic producers of cloth will receive a lower relative price of cloth, and therefore will be more willing to switch to food production: relative supply of cloth will decrease.

Domestic consumers will pay a lower relative price for cloth, and therefore will be more willing to switch to cloth consumption: relative demand for cloth will increase.

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Fig. 6-9: Effects of a Food Tariff on the Terms of Trade

When the home country imposes an import tariff, the terms of trade increase and the welfare of the country may increase.

The magnitude of this effect depends on the size of the home country relative to the world economy.

If the country is a small part of the world economy, its tariff (or subsidy) policies will not have much effect on world relative supply and demand, and thus on the terms of trade.

But for large countries, a tariff may maximize national welfare at the expense of foreign countries.

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Fig. 6-10: Effects of a Cloth Subsidy on the Terms of Trade

If the home country imposes a subsidy on cloth exports, the price of cloth relative to the price of food rises for domestic consumers.

Dom. producers will receive a higher relative price of cloth when they export, and will be more willing to switch to cloth production: relative supply of cloth will increase.

Dom. consumers must pay a higher relative price of cloth to producers, and will be more willing to switch to food consumption: relative demand for cloth will decrease.

When the home country imposes an export subsidy, the terms of trade decrease and the welfare of the country decreases to the benefit of the foreign country.

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Implications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?

The standard trade model predicts that

an import tariff by the home country can increase domestic welfare at the expense of the foreign country.
an export subsidy by the home country reduces domestic welfare to the benefit of the foreign country.

Additional effects of tariffs and subsidies that can occur in a world with many countries and many goods:

A foreign country may subsidize the export of a good that the U.S. also exports, which will reduce the price for the U.S. in world markets and decrease its terms of trade. (CAP in EU)
A foreign country may put a tariff on an imported good that the U.S. also imports, which will reduce the price for the U.S. in world markets and increase its terms of trade.

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Implications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?

Export subsidies by foreign countries on goods that

the U.S. imports reduce the world price of U.S. imports and increase the terms of trade for the U.S.
the U.S. also exports reduce the world price of U.S. exports and decrease the terms of trade for the U.S.

Import tariffs by foreign countries on goods that

the U.S. exports reduce the world price of U.S. exports and decrease the terms of trade for the U.S.
the U.S. also imports reduce the world price of U.S. imports and increase the terms of trade for the U.S.

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Summary

The terms of trade refers to the price of exports relative to the price of imports.
Export-biased growth reduces a country’s terms of trade, reducing its welfare and increasing the welfare of foreign countries.
Import-biased growth increases a country’s terms of trade, increasing its welfare and decreasing the welfare of foreign countries.
When a country imposes an import tariff, its terms of trade increase and its welfare may increase.
When a country imposes an export subsidy, its terms of trade decrease and its welfare decreases.

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