The History of the Christian Church
Twenty Centuries at a Glance
Six Reasons to Study Church History
Five Ages of Church History
Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Reformation Christianity (AD 1517-1648)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-present)
Four Aspects to Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Setting for Christianity
Source for Christianity
Spread of Christianity
Spread of Christianity
People from Parthia, Media, Elam, Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, Libya, Rome, Crete, and Arabia were all at Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:9–11). Tradition teaches that Bartholomew preached in Armenia; Andrew in the southern steppes of Russia and the Ukraine; Thomas in Persia and India; Matthew in Ethiopia; James the Younger in Egypt; Jude in Assyria and Persia; and Mark (not one of the apostles but closely related to them) in Alexandria.
Spread of Christianity
In about 150 AD Justin Martyr observed, “There is no people, Greek or barbarian, or of any other race, by whatever appellation or manners they be distinguished, however ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell in tents or wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers and thanksgivings are not offered in the name of the crucified Jesus to the Father and Creator of all things.”
Major Centers of Early Christianity
Persecution of Christianity
From the perspective of people in the 1st century AD, Paul and other believers in Jesus were part of a new Jewish sect (Acts 16:19–21). In AD 54, Emperor Claudius expelled from Rome all persons practicing the Jewish religion. This edict of Claudius included Jewish believers in Jesus (Acts 18:2). In AD 64 a fire destroyed 10 districts in Rome. To avoid blame, Nero blamed the Christians. Peter & Paul were both martyred at this time.
Persecution of Christianity
Many Romans despised Christians because Christians rejected the traditional Roman gods. Many Romans were suspicious of Christianity as a new religion, & misunderstood many Christian customs, especially the Lord’s Supper. Additionally, Christians valued children and women in ways that challenged the social order. The Jewish-Roman war of AD 66-70 also aggravated tensions between Romans & Christianity, which was still seen as an offshoot of Judaism.
Persecution of Christianity
In the late 1st century AD, Emperor Domitian (AD 81-96) demanded to be worshiped as “Lord and God,” but Christians would not participate. Domitian as well as several of his successors (esp. Decius, 249-251 & Diocletian, 303-311) would persecute Christians by imprisonment, torture, or death. Many Christians died by being cast to the lions in the Colosseum yet became revered for dying well.
Persecution of Christianity
Ironically, the persecution of Christianity was one of the primary apologetics for Christianity, because Christians suffered well (cf. 1 Thess. 1 & 1 Peter). Martyr stories such as those of Polycarp, Ignatius of Antioch, Perpetua and Felicity, or Justin Martyr encouraged believers to remain steadfast and served as important devotional reading.
Persecution of Christianity
These narratives transformed persecution from a threat into a witness. Tertullian captured this paradox when he observed that “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church,” recognizing that the very violence intended to destroy Christianity instead demonstrated its power to inspire ultimate sacrifice.
Five Ages of Church History
Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Reformation Christianity (AD 1517-1648)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-present)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Post-Apostolic Fathers (AD 95-150)
The title “Apostolic Fathers” refers both to a group of early leaders & a collection of documents that were written by these men to exhort and edify the early church by reminding them of apostolic teaching and encouraging them to remain faithful amidst persecution. Examples include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, & the Didache.
Post-Apostolic Fathers (AD 95-150)
Ignatius (AD 35-108) was known as the Bishop of Bishops. He was famously taken to Rome, and resisted release so that he could suffer martyrdom. He wrote seven letters to the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, Smyrna, and Bishop Polycarp. He constantly quotes from the NT books of Matthew, Like, John, Actus, Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians, 1-2 Timothy, Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, and Revelation.
Post-Apostolic Fathers (AD 95-150)
Polycarp (died AD 156) was perhaps the most famous martyr of the early church. Jerome, writing in the 4th century, stated, “Polycarp, disciple of the apostle John, and by him ordained bishop of Smyrna was chief of all Asia, where he saw and had as teachers some of the apostles and others who had seen the Lord… He wrote a very valuable epistle to the Philippians which is read to the present day in the meetings in Asia.” This letter to the Philippians quotes several of Paul’s epistles.
Post-Apostolic Fathers (AD 95-150)
Clement was an elder at the church in Rome, who is possibly alluded to in Phil. 4:3, who died in AD 99 (cf. Eusebius Eccl. History 3.15). He is believed to have known and interacted with several Apostles, and that the Apostle Peter commissioned him into ministry. He is most famous for his letters he wrote to the Corinthians, wherein he quotes or alludes to the NT books of Acts, 1-2 Corinthians, a few passages from the Gospels, Titus, Hebrews, 1-2 Peter, James, and Romans.
Apologists (AD 140-200)
Apologists defended the Christian faith from both political and intellectual attacks coming from outside the Christian community. Men like Justin Martyr (c. 100-165) defended against political attacks by writing to Roman Emperors about the persecution of Christians. Men like Origen (AD 185-254) defended Christianity against Intellectual attacks from men like Celsus, who described Christians as “worthless contemptible people,” and the religion for “slaves and women.”
Polemics (AD 180-225)
While the Apologists defended Christians from attacks outside the church, the Polemics defended Christianity from heresies within the church. Many early heresies threatened the infant church. These heresies ranged from undermining the authority of Scripture, to questioning the deity and/or humanity of Christ and denying the sufficiency of the atonement.
Polemics (AD 180-225)
Polemics (AD 180-225)
Christians responded to external persecution and internal heresies by recognizing a canon of authoritative writings, creating early confessions of faith (i.e., Ichthus, the Apostle’s Creed, etc.), & consolidating authority in the extra-biblical office of bishops, especially bishops that could trace their apostolic heritage.
The Conversion of Constantine
Diocletian's reign (284-305) consisted of “The Great Persecution” against Christians & a reorganization of the empire into four prefectures. Though he aimed for stability and orderly succession, the empire devolved into a civil war after Diocletian’s death. Constantine's rise marked a pivotal shift in Christian history. Following his father's death, he consolidated power and claimed a divine vision before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312, leading to his favoring of Christianity & the Edict of Toleration in AD 313.
The Conversion of Constantine
Though his motives and the genuineness of his conversion are questioned, Constantine's outward commitment to Christianity was remarkable. The persecution of Christians ended, pagan temples like the pantheon in Rome were converted to churches, grand basilicas were built at government expense, Christians were appointed to high government offices, and churches were made tax exempt. This toleration allowed Christianity to flourish leading to a golden age of theologians and church councils.
Theologians (AD 225-590)
The period from Nicaea (325) to Chalcedon (451) is recognized as the "Golden Age of Patristic Literature," marked by significant theological developments and influential writers in early Christianity. The so-called 8 Great Doctors come from this period.
Theologians (AD 225-590)
Theologians (AD 225-590)
Theologians (AD 225-590)
Major Hermeneutical Schools
First Four Major Church Councils
After the conversion of Constantine, a merger of church and state occurred. This merger meant theological differences were also considered political issues. Constantine and his successors would organize ecumenical councils, which sought to gather Christian bishops from around the empire so that they could deliberate doctrine. Trinitarian issues like Adoptionism, Modalism, & Arianism, as well as Christological issues like Apollinarianism, Nestorianism, & Eutychianism were core to the debates. Numerous ecumenical councils occurred, but the first four major councils are typically recognized by the majority of Christendom.
First Four Major Church Councils
First Four Major Church Councils
Rise of Monasticism
The union of church and state under Emperor Constantine also led to corruption within the church. Monasticism is essentially a reaction to that corruption. The term “monk” comes from a Greek word that means “solitary.” The first monks were hermits that withdrew from society in order to pursue a private life of poverty and holiness. Other monks began living communally in what would become known as monasteries.
Rise of Monasticism
The monks deliberately chose poverty, humility, sacrifice, and service as a way of life. They saw the road to godliness as one of rigorous discipline, which freed them from slavery to their own body and its appetites. Most monks lived in celibacy & asceticism, which included not merely neglect of their bodies, but often self-flagellation. Many of them were very legalistic and were known for abusing the Scriptures. Yet there was something noble about their genuine dedication and sacrifice.
Rise of Monasticism
Monasticism became a movement due to two biographies. Athanasius wrote about St. Anthony (c. 251-365), while Jerome wrote about Paul of Thebes (d. c. 341). These two biographies promoted monasticism, which in turn became a profoundly powerful influence upon church history ever since. Organized monastic orders tended to emphasize one of two philosophies. Vertical monasticism cultivated personal spirituality, while horizontal monasticism focused on social perspectives & even missions.
Rise of Monasticism
The hermit style of Monasticism eventually died out, in some cases due to harsh weather, disease, and animal attacks. This led monks to move into walled communities, where the older teachers became abbots (fathers) and were like bishops for monks. By the 5th century, their influence grew to the point that the most powerful bishops in the Catholic Church were chosen from among the monks. Virtually every important writing of the church was done by and in the context of monastic life. The monastic movement infused the corrupt church of its day with fresh ideas and spiritual energy. It attacked by retreat!
Mixed Legacy of the Patristic Period
Five Ages of Church History
Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Reformation Christianity (AD 1517-1648)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-present)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
Though the rise of the papacy corresponds to the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the roots of the papacy go back to early Christian history. First, Irenaeus (170-202) & Cyrpian (248-58) both claimed the primacy of the bishop Rome in ecclesiastical matters. Even the Council of Nicaea (AD 325) supported the primacy of key cities including Rome, Antioch, & Alexandria
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
Four major waves of invasions from Germanic tribes led to the disintegration of the western Roman Empire, which then ceased to have significant influence and began a period known as “the Dark Ages.” The Germanic invasions reshaped the history of Western Europe just like the Islamic invasions would reshape the East.
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
In the West, Bishops like Leo I (AD 440-61) & Gregory the Great (AD 590) stepped into the vacuum after the fall of Rome and functioned as a stabilizing force. For instance, Leo I personally convinced Atilla the Hun not to destroy Rome in AD 452 & Gregory’s selfless service of the populace during a plague granted him unprecedented influence & labeled him as “papa,” (Pope).
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
Pope Gregory I, known as Gregory the Great, served as Bishop of Rome from 590-604. His influence concentrated power in the Bishop of Rome and resulted in the beginning of what we would call the papacy.
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
The Development of Feudalism:
Due to earlier missionary endeavors, many of the invading Germanic tribes were Arian Christians, which would often leave church lands untouched, and would even give land grants to monasteries. Later examples of land grants to the church include the so-called “Donation of Pepin” (714-768). These extensive land holdings of the church were used to support the masses and in turn the church received the taxes causing it to grow in wealth, power, & eventually corruption.
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
Centralizing Papal Power
In 799, power-hungry Italian nobles accused Pope Leo III of embezzlement. This disorder drove Pope Leo III (795-816) to call upon the powerful King of the Franks, Charles the Great (a.k.a. Charlemagne), to provide him protection and restore order.
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
In gratitude, Leo crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (in continuity with rulers of ancient Rome) on Christmas mass A.D. 800. Charlemagne went on to forge a great kingdom and bring cultural renewal (i.e., Carolingian Renaissance), but weak successors as well as Viking invasions from the north caused a decline into what history calls “Feudalism.”
Rise of the Papacy (AD 590-1054)
During Feudalism, the church became a vassal to their French and German lords and nobles because the bishops and abbots needed protection. Thus, politicians ruled the church and began to practice Simony (the purchasing of a church office) and Lay Investiture (where the lords and nobles appointed the bishops). In time, however, a powerful Pope would challenge this status quo and seek supremacy for the church.
Height of the Papacy (AD 1054-1294)
Finally, a powerful and ambitious Pope (Gregory the 7th, a.k.a. Hildebrand, 1073-1085) asserted the power of the church. This led to a famous stand off between him and king Henry the 4th of Germany. This is a watershed event in the history of western civilization.
Height of the Papacy (AD 1054-1294)
By enforcing a nation-wide revolt Hildebrand forced the submission of king Henry IV of Germany and thereby gained absolute supremacy for the church over the state. The greatest height of the Papacy would occur under Innocent III (1198-1216) & Boniface VIII (1294-1303), who claimed to be vicars of Christ, to have papal infallibility, and would institute the Inquisition.
Height of the Papacy (AD 1054-1294)
Crusades (AD 1096-1270)
The height of the papacy is illustrated in this period by the fact that they could raise armies and wage war. “The Crusades” are a series of religious wars that attempted to reclaim the Holy Land from Islamic control. Ironically, the effects of the Crusades were mainly political & social instead of religious. The returning Crusaders introduced many social changes that led ultimately to the end of Feudalism and the beginning of the Renaissance.
Height of the Papacy (AD 1054-1294)
Scholasticism
Height of the Papacy (AD 1054-1294)
Scholasticism
The Great Schism (AD 1054)
For many years, Christians in the eastern and western regions viewed themselves as members of one church, despite disagreements. However, between the 9th and 13th centuries the church split into two entities: Roman Catholic & Eastern Orthodox. The primary reasons:
1. The Filioque Controversy
2. The Great Schism of 1054
3. The Fourth Crusade
The Great Schism (AD 1054)
Churches in western Europe had added the word filioque (“and the Son”) to the Nicene Creed in the AD 500s. The eastern and western churches disagreed over the orthodoxy of the statement. On July 16, 1054, the bishop Rome placed a notice of excommunication on the Lord’s Supper table of the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople. This public event ruptured the church and became known as “The Great Schism,” where both the East & West excommunicated each other.
The Great Schism (AD 1054)
The real animosity, however, occurred during the 4th Crusade, when Crusaders from the west never reached the Holy Land but became entangled in a series of financial and political issues which brought the Crusaders to Constantinople. On Good Friday, 1204, the western Crusaders broke through the walls of Constantinople. For three days, the Crusaders killed, tortured, and raped eastern Christians in the name of Christ. Relations between the east and west never recovered.
Decline of the Papacy (AD 1294-1517)
Babylonian Captivity (AD 1305-1378)
The rise of national monarchies posed challenges to papal authority, exemplified by Boniface VIII’s (1294-1303) conflicts with King Philip IV of France over the state taxing clergy, leading to the pope's eventual decline in power.
Babylonian Captivity (AD 1305-1378)
After the death of Boniface, Philipp IV pressured Pope Clement V to relocate the papal residence to Avignon, France so that he could control the church and its policies. Clement acquiesced and began a period of approximately 70 years where the Pope ruled from France. Pope Gregory XI finally returned to Rome in 1378.
Papal Schism (AD 1378-1417)
The Papal Schism resulted when French & Italian cardinals could not agree on ending the Babylonian Captivity. The disagreement resulted in two rival Popes, who then excommunicated each other. When the Council of Pisa (1409) deposed the two popes and elected a new pope, the previous two would not step down. Now there were three popes! Council of Constance (1417) finally dealt with the confusion, but the church was discredited in the process, leading to attitudes that fed a mindset that came to be known as the “Pre-Reformation.”
Renaissance (AD 1300-1500s)
The Renaissance formed another factor that contributed to the decline of papal influence over the masses. The Renaissance was rooted in the Crusades, which brought back to Europe new ideas, libraries, Greek philosophy, the Greek NT, Arabic numerals, new foods, clothes etc.
Renaissance (AD 1300-1500s)
These new sources of knowledge led to a “rebirth” of rationalism, philosophy, art, literature, architecture, which resulted in a middle class, a cultural renewal, a renewed love of knowledge, & the rise of the universities, all of which served to rival the influence of the papacy and pave the way for the Reformation.
Reformation (AD 1517-1648)
Pre-Reformation
Socially, Europe was reeling from the bubonic plague. Religiously, Europe was disgusted with simony, immorality, & corruption in the Papacy. Intellectually, Europe was embracing rationalism & humanism. Economically, feudalism was in decline due to the rise of a middle class of tradesmen. Politically, European nations were on the rise and Europeans were becoming more loyal to their nationality than the papacy.
Pre-Reformation�(Separatists)
Disenchantment with the Catholic Church led both secular & religious intellectuals to study the Greek NT and come to differences with the papacy. Courageous and increasingly more influential men began to speak out against the papacy.
Pre-Reformation�(Separatists)
This aligned these men with earlier groups that appeared throughout the 800-1200’s known as “the separatists.” The papacy responded to these groups by attempting to persecute and silence dissension. These groups were so persecuted that they left no writings. We only know of them because of the Catholic records of their trials.
Pre-Reformation�(Separatists)
Groups such as Paulicians, Bogomils, Albigenses, Petrobusians, Henricians, & Waldensians (c. 800-1200s) were separatists from the Catholic church because they rejected infant baptism, transubstantiation, Mary worship, use of icons, purgatory, penance, etc.
Pre-Reformation�(Separatists)
These groups held closely to the authority of the Scripture, believer’s baptism by immersion, and separation of church & state. Their existence attests to the fact that the true faith has always been preserved, yet their sentiments would soon become more common through the events of the Reformation & especially the Radical Reformation.
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
John Wycliffe in England (AD 1330-1385)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
John Wycliffe in England (AD 1330-1385)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
John Huss in Bohemia (AD 1372-1415)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
John Huss in Bohemia (AD 1372-1415)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
The Year that Changed History (1453)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
Erasmus (1466-1536)
Pre-Reformation�(Scholastics)
Five Ages of Church History
Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Reformation Christianity (AD 1517-1648)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-present)
The Reformation
The Reformation
The men known as “reformers” never achieved a unified Protestant theology nor a single church. However, they did all rally around core ideas that later came to be known as “the solas.”
The Reformation
Luther in Germany
Born to a German miner in 1483, Luther began as a lawyer but during an unexpected storm he vowed to become a monk. Luther was such a despondent monk who could not deal with his guilt that his superiors eventually guided him to a teaching position at Wittenberg in 1512, where he began studying & teaching the Bible. Luther began to see what Wycliff, Huss, and others had said. Finally, as he studied the book of Romans (c. 1514-15), Luther contemplated Rom. 1:16-17 and discovered the salvation for which he longed. He speaks of how his soul “went through the gates to paradise.” Luther began teaching this, and college students at Wittenberg began flocking to him.
Luther in Germany
Then came the decisive moment. Due to a campaign for the sale of indulgences to build St. Peter’s Basilica, Luther wanted to invite debate regarding the issue. Luther did not believe the indulgences were consistent with the Bible, so he came up with 95 protests (a.k.a. “Theses”), which invited the academics of the college to debate. A debate was organized between Luther & John Ek, which lasted for 18 days. Ek placed the authority for indulgences entirely upon the Pope, and Luther responded, “who is the Pope?” Luther claimed the Bible to be the authority, not the Pope. Ek ended the debate with an Ad Hominem argument, by aligning Luther with John Huss, who was burned at the stake earlier.
Luther in Germany
The Burning of the Papal Bull (Oct. 1520)
After earlier attempts at reconciliation failed like the meeting in Augsburg (1518), the Pope issued an edict, known as a Bulla, that commanded Luther to recant within 60 days. Luther famously burned the Papal Bull in front of a crowd, thus widening the growing gap between himself and the Catholic Church.
Luther in Germany
The Diet of Worms (1521)
The Catholic Pope required Luther to recant his writings, which they placed before him. Yet in this context Luther uttered his famous quote: “Unless it can be shown from the Scriptures that I am wrong, my conscience is bound to the Scriptures. Here I stand, I can do no other.” This encounter resulted in the official excommunication of Luther from the Catholic Church.
Luther in Germany
Fredrick of Saxony
Nationalistically minded Fredrick of Saxony was a strategic friend to Luther throughout his life. Fredrick kidnapped Luther after the Diet of Worms (1521) before the Pope could kill him. Fredrick hid Luther in his Warburg castle. Luther changed his name, grew a beard, and hid out for several months, but Luther used these months to translate the Bible into German.
Luther in Germany
The German Bible Spread & a Church got started.
Luther in Germany
Turks Invade Vienna (1526)
Charles V, king of Germany, was unable to mess with the theological fire of Luther, because he needed Lutheran princes to back his military efforts. This delay in dealing with Luther allowed the Gospel to spread all over Germany.
Luther in Germany
Diet of Speyer (1529)
After dealing with the Turks, Charles V called a meeting & pronounced Lutheranism to be heretical and thus to be renounced. A German prince stood and said, “We Protest.” Hence the term, “Protestants.” Due to the invasion of the Turks, Charles had to allow toleration for now.
Zwingli in Switzerland
Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) moved to a monastery church at Einseideln in 1516 for a 3-year ministry, where he studied the Greek New Testament published by Erasmus. After becoming the parish priest in a large cathedral in Zurich (1519), Zwingli became open about his views. He broke with the pope and married and then preached openly against celibacy. Popular feeling was roused to such a level that a city council was held.
Zwingli in Switzerland
Zwingli presented his Sixty-seven Articles and was so convincing that the council charged him to continue his evangelical methods. Tremendous changes followed; many priests married and set aside the mass. In 1529 war broke out between Protestants and Roman Catholics in Switzerland. The war ended in 1531 with the Protestants defeated and Zwingli slain.
Calvin in Switzerland
John Calvin (1509-64) was secularly trained in law and literature, yet during his studies he became acquainted with the Greek NT and was converted c. 1532-33. Calvin’s brilliance was discovered by Martin Bucer, the great Reformer of Strasbourg, who was professor of theology at the university there. Bucer persuaded Calvin to get “into the game” and join the Protestant Reformation.
Calvin in Switzerland
At Basel in 1536 at the age of only 25, Calvin published the first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion, which served as the first systematic summary of Protestant Theology. He later established the Academy that would come to be the University of Geneva. His teaching, writing, and influence helped systematize the Reformation.
Anabaptists
By no means did all those who broke with Rome agree with Zwingli, or Luther, or Calvin. As early as 1523, in Zurich, Conrad Gregel and Felix Manz (separatists) questioned a number of teachings and practices of Romanism and insisted on adult baptism. Their activities caused the city counsel to persecute them, and many of their followers were exiled.
Anabaptists
“Anabaptists” (literally, “to baptize again”) were a branch of the “Radical Reformation,” because they insisted on the necessity of personal conversion, a separation of church and state, & believer’s baptism (vs. infant baptism), all radical ideas in 16th century Europe. The original Anabaptists were disciples of Zwingli, who came to their convictions through personal Bible study. However, even Zwingli opposed their ideas, which were far ahead of their time.
Anabaptists
The Anabaptist and other groups of the Radical Reformation became the most severely ostracized groups, being persecuted by Catholics, Lutherans, and the Reformed branches of the Reformation. They produced few writings in their early years due to always being on the run.
Huguenots in France
The Reformation continued to spread across continental Europe. Despite persecution, there existed 2,000 Calvinist churches in France by 1559. Religious wars broke out in France by 1562. Thousands of French Protestants are slaughtered in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572.
Huguenots in France
Limited & temporary relief was experienced in 1598 by the Edict of Nantes, but it only applied to certain noble citizens and certain towns. Yet even the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, causing thousands of French Protestants to flee France to other European countries or to the new world.
Puritans in England
Puritans in England
Puritans in England
As literacy was on the rise and Protestantism was gaining influence, everyday religion took a major leap forward with the publication of Cranmer’s The Book of Common Prayer (1549).
Puritans in England
Though Cranmer is famous for going along with the compromises of Henry VIII, his publication of The Book of Common Prayer transformed Christianity as we know it, because its morning and evening readings popularized what has come to be known as “daily personal devotions.”
Puritans in England
Queen Mary (1553-58) rigorously opposed Protestantism, and severely persecuted Protestants in England while she attempted to reassert a Catholic influence. Her actions earned her the name “bloody Mary.”
Puritans in England
However, her sister Elizabeth (1558-1603) soon took the throne and tried to find a middle ground (Via Media), that established Anglicanism by combining Protestant Theology (39 Articles) & Catholic Liturgy.
Puritans in England
Elizabeth’s middle way and the the unrest following the accession of Charles I (1625-1649) led to a flurry of debates both politically and religiously, which ultimately led to two differing Protestant groups. The Puritans sought to remain in the Church of England and “purify” it so it would become more Protestant and less popish. The Separatists decided to look for religious freedom by going elsewhere. 20,000 English Protestants left England between the years 1628-1640.
Counter Reformation
The “Counter-Reformation” is basically the Catholic response to Protestantism, which can be summarized in three things:
Counter Reformation
“Some historians have interpreted the Catholic Reformation as a counterattack against Protestantism; others have described it as a genuine revival of Catholic piety with few thoughts of Protestantism. The truth is the movement was both a Counter Reformation, as Protestants insist, and a Catholic Reformation, as Catholics argue. Its roots run back to forces before Luther’s time, but the form it took was largely determined by the Protestant attack.”
-Bruce Shelley
Council of Trent (1545-63)
The Council of Trent formalized Catholic doctrine in the face of Protestant advance.
The Inquisition
The Inquisitions span several centuries and took different forms across regions. The Medieval or Episcopal Inquisition began around 1184, comprising the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the Papal Inquisition (1230). The infamous Spanish Inquisition was authorized in 1478, while the Roman Inquisition reacted to Protestantism & was established by Paul III in 1542.
The Inquisition
The term “inquisition” refers to judicial institutions or tribunals that were held by the Roman Catholic church to find and punish heresy. The purpose of the inquisition was to maintain religious and doctrinal purity within the Roman Catholic Church. However, the rulings and punishments of heretics were heavy handed, and have become synonymous with cruelty.
The Jesuits
The term “Jesuit” a.k.a. “the society of Jesus,” is a Roman Catholic religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). Its aim was to be the primary missionary force for the Roman Catholic church. Bruce Shelley calls the Jesuits “the greatest single force in Catholicism’s campaign to recapture the spiritual domains seized by Protestantism.”
The Jesuits
The Jesuits pursued a multifaceted mission. They ministered to the poor, educated boys, and evangelized non-Christian populations. Francis Xavier undertook remarkable missionary journeys spanning Goa, South India, Ceylon, Malaya, and Japan. The order was notably successful in Poland & Germany—while also founding seminaries and schools for lay education from their earliest days.
The Jesuits
When Ignatius died, the society numbered approximately 1,000 members managing 100 foundations; a century later, this had grown to over 15,000 Jesuits administering 550 foundations. Their expansion and organizational success made them instrumental in reversing Protestant gains across Catholic territories during the Counter-Reformation period.
The Thirty Years War
Although it was not his intention, Luther’s reform movement opened the floodgates of long-standing, deep-seated social and ecclesiastical discontent. Because religion and politics were inseparable, the Reformation & Counter-Reformation led to extensive regional wars that lasted for several decades.
The Thirty Years War
There were around 4 wars between Catholics & Protestants, which led to the eventual killing of 1/4 of European men. The conflict finally ended in 1648 at the “Peace of Westphalia.” This conflict and resolution is typically seen as the transition period between the Reformation and Modern History.
The Thirty Years War
Europe was exhausted with war and finally said enough is enough. Many saw Christianity (both Catholic & Protestant) as the cause of all of this devastation. These turbulent times would provide the fertile soil for the birth of the rationalistic enlightenment movement, which would seek to blame Christianity for all the world’s ills.
Five Ages of Church History
Apostolic Christianity (AD 33-100)
Patristic Christianity (AD 100-590)
Medieval Christianity (AD 590-1517)
Reformation Christianity (AD 1517-1648)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-present)
Modern Christianity (AD 1648-Present)
Modern history stands in stark contrast to what came before. The Judeo-Christian worldview saw Jerusalem as the center of history and the purposes of God. However, the forces of the Renaissance, Reformation, & Counter-Reformation set ideas in motion, which would reshape the world into a vastly different place. Mankind’s entire worldview would shift. The eras of exploration and revolution remapped the history of humanity & Christianity.
A Whole New World
The Age of Exploration
During the 1400-1600s the European nations of Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Sweden, & the Netherlands raced to find new routes to the East, new sources of raw material, and new markets to tap into. The age of exploration soon led to the race for colonization, which brought European culture & religion around the world, but esp. to the Americas. Catholicism came to America via Spain, Portugal, & France, while Protestantism came via the British, Dutch, & French Huguenots.
The Age of Exploration
The Age of Exploration
The Age of Exploration
The Intellectual Revolution (Enlightenment)
Exhausted by the religious conflicts of the Thirty Years War, Europe started to look elsewhere for purpose and meaning. The New World & science started promising answers, and rationalistic philosophers began to attempt to liberate humanity from the fate of existence in a God-ordered universe. This evolution of thought is called “the Enlightenment” (c. 1650-1950).
The Intellectual Revolution (Enlightenment)
This shift in worldview began with scientists like Copernicus, Galileo (1564-1642) Bacon, and Newton. These men began to see a natural, even mechanical, view to the world that brought explanation without religion. Leading thinkers of this era began to see Christian supernaturalism as old-fashioned, outdated, & superstitious
The Intellectual Revolution (Enlightenment)
Pagan thinkers began to defy God and Christianity, and to assert the dominance of man. This led to…
The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution rooted back to Greek and Muslim science, Renaissance humanism, and world exploration. Scientists like Copernicus and Newton made important discoveries about the universe, while the ideas of Bacon and Descartes helped standardize the scientific method.
The Scientific Revolution
The paganistic thought of the Enlightenment seemed confirmed in the minds of many as new scientific achievements were being made. These human achievements in science and technology seemed to open a new age of progress, rendering the wisdom of past ages obsolete.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution (c. 1760-1840) harnessed discoveries of the scientific revolution and turned them into new applicational technologies such as the steam engine, automated textiles, the telegraph, & the cotton gin.
The Industrial Revolution
These innovations began in Great Britain and Continental Europe, yet it soon spread to America. These achievements led to booming economies and strong militaries, but also unequal wealth and social unrest.
Political �Revolutions
Ideas have consequences. The “progress” of humanity also impacted the world politically. A phenomenon called a “revolution” began to take place all over the globe, where the authority of king, priest, or pope was cast off. This period witnessed over 40 individual revolutions around the world.
Political �Revolutions
Political �Revolutions
Countries like France and Russia embraced atheistic ideas and inherited a social disintegration that led to dictators like Napoleon or Stalin. Countries with more Christian social influence like England and America turned out better. Groups like the Baptists in colonial America influenced the founding fathers toward religious toleration and separation of church and state, which led to a decline in religious wars and more social stability.
Christianity in America
Protestant Influence
Though Catholicism had a century head start in the Americas because of the Spanish and Portuguese, the British began to dominate colonization on the coast of North America by the late 1500’s to the early 1700’s. Wherever the English government established a crown colony, the recognized religion was that of the Anglican church. In addition to official colonies of the crown, many British Protestants, French Huguenots, or Dutch Protestants were seeking freedom of religion in the New World.
Protestant Influence
William Bradford of The Mayflower fame (1620) was part of an English separatist church that broke away from the Anglican church 1607. This group of separatists would become the Pilgrims that came to America. Many of these Protestants were influenced by Pietism, which was a movement in the 16-1700s that was rooted in the writings of Johann Arndt (1555-1621), but the recognized patriarch of Pietism was Philip Jakob Spener (1635-1705).
Protestant Influence
Pietism sought to bring religious renewal to the deadened Lutheran church of its day. It emphasized the necessity of personal regeneration rather than mere outward church membership or credal confession. Pietists invented such practices as small group Bible studies, potlucks, sing-spirations, watchnight services, sunrise services, & emphasized personal life application through study, worship, and accountability.
Protestant Influence
A spiritual line of descent can be traced from Spener to Zinzendorf & the Moravians, then to John Wesley & the Methodists. In short, Pietism paved the way for revivalism & fueled the fire for missions. Men like Johnathan Edwards, George Whitfield, John & Charles Wesley would preach passionately about the necessity of personal regeneration. Revivalism in Britain and America led to the Great Awakenings, which in turn cemented Protestant Christianity in American culture & politics.
Protestant Influence
Awakenings & Revivals
The First Great Awakening (1730s-1760s)
The First Great Awakening is often seen as the first intercolonial event that occurred in early America. This movement was led by pastoral evangelists like Theodore Frelinghuysen (1691-1747), Gilbert Tennent (1703-1764) with his Log Cabin College, and Johnathan Edwards (1703-1758), who is considered by many to be America’s first great original thinker, prolific writer, and intellectual genius.
The First Great Awakening (1730s-1760s)
The emergence of George Whitfield (1714-1770) and John Wesley (1703-1791) heralded a new day in the Awakening. Whitfield preached to 80% of the American population & has been called the “Awakener of the Awakening.” The work of these men in England, Scotland, & America would begin to lay the foundation for what would later be known as the evangelical movement, which centers on the Bible, preaches the necessity of personal conversion, followed by a walk with God, and a fervor for evangelism.
Fruits of the First Great Awakening
Many established pastors and denominations, mainly from Boston, opposed the Awakening as “emotionalism,” or “enthusiasm.” Edwards maintained a balanced view believing that neither the enthusiasts nor the rationalists properly defined true religion. While these criticisms did have some truth, the overall impact of the Awakening argues for its essential legitimacy.
Fruits of the First Great Awakening
Conversions have been estimated between 25-50,000 in New England alone. Hundreds of new churches were established. Existing denominations were redefined and refocused. New denominations like Methodism were created. Colleges and training institutions such as Yale, Dartmouth, Harvard, & Queen’s College emerged, which sought to conserve and extend the fruits of the awakening. These effects set the rudder for the religious & intellectual future of America, including the modern missionary movement.
The Missions Movement
Though modest Protestant mission efforts dated back to the 1600’s, especially among the Moravians, the Reformers were by and large beneath the cultural ideas of Christendom, which normally advanced Christianity through civil magistrates and the power of the sword. The Great Awakenings, however, spawned the idea of volunteerism, where believers engaged in missionary activity according to their conscience rather than coercion.
The Missions Movement
This led to a surge of missionary efforts, which began among the native American Indians under the ministry of David Brainerd (1718-1747). Brainerd would die at 29 of tuberculosis while in the house of Jonathan Edwards. Brainerd gave his journal to Edwards who then published it. These writings came to serve as a sort of missionary manifesto.
The Missions Movement
Brainerd’s journal inspired generations of missionaries for the next 150 years of mission work. John Wesley, William Carey, Henry Martyn, David Livingstone, Robert McCheyne, Andrew Murray, & even Jim Eliot all claimed inspiration from Brainerd’s life and work.
Protestant Influence
The Missions Movement
The nineteenth century witnessed rapid expansion of evangelical missionary engagement, from the founding of the Baptist Mission Society in England in 1792 (William Carey was one of their 1st Missionaries) through the Student Volunteer Movement in 1886. This era, sometimes called the Great Century of Missions, saw proliferation of missionary societies aided by colonial expansion into India, China, and Africa. These efforts launched innumerable missionaries worldwide while deepening the church’s understanding of its missionary role.
The Missions Movement
When William Carey began his work, only a few hundred Protestant missionaries existed globally; by 1900, this had grown to 15,000. In 1800, perhaps 1% of Protestant Christians lived in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. By 1900, this number had grown to 10%. Today, at least 67 percent of all active Protestant Christians live in countries once considered foreign mission fields. And the church is still growing rapidly, even explosively, in many areas—Korea, sub-Saharan Africa, Singapore, and the Peoples’ Republic of China.
The Missions Movement
Since the late 1700s Protestant missions saw the equipping and sending of tens of thousands of missionaries around the world, with the vast majority coming from America. Today Korea has surpassed the U.S. in sending full-time missionaries, with Brazil & Africa coming up quickly.
The Missions Movement
Though Protestant Missions still thrives today, it had its heyday from the founding of the early mission agencies in England in the 1780-90s till its decline in the 1960s due to liberal theology’s recasting missions as Christian imperialism, and its invention of the Social Gospel.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
While the 1st Great Awakening was led by pastoral evangelists, the 2nd Great Awakening was led by the first “professional evangelists” such as Charles Finney (1792-1865). The 2nd Great Awakening took on a much more emotional flavor than even the 1st Great Awakening, especially among the frontier camp meeting revivals in Kentucky & Tennessee.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
Finney ministered in the north but became controversial due to his employment of the “new measures” [protracted meetings, anxious bench, name calling, and other theatrics] that sought to manipulate crowds into decisions.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
Asahel Nettleton (1783-1844) opposed Finney & led a much different wing of the awakening that was more emotionally controlled. The results of the 2nd Great Awakening are often debated. While Finney conducted large meetings in big cities and drew huge crowds, the results were not as long lasting.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
The area over which Finney conducted most of his efforts was later known as “the burned over district.” Church attendance and membership declined in these districts after Finney’s revival efforts. Some argue that cults such as Mormonism began in Finney’s wake.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
The Lebanon conference, led by Beecher & Nettleton, met in 1827 to try and curtail the worst of Finney’s abuses, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Finney went on to become the most influential evangelical of his day by far. Nettleton’s branch of the awakening was less impressive in the sense of large meetings but seemingly produced longer lasting results.
The Second Great Awakening (1787-1817)
Regardless of whether one sides with Finney or Nettleton, the 2nd Great Awakening made a lasting impact on American culture by establishing Sunday schools, colleges, seminaries, publishing houses, institutions for the ill & insane, and other social movements.
Path to Modern Revivals & Evangelicalism
The Layman’s Prayer Revival (1857-58) is often overlooked by historians because it had no clear leader. Rather, it was a groundswell of Christian response to the emerging national crisis that led to the Civil War. The YMCA & Salvation Army were products of this movement.
Path to Modern Revivals & Evangelicalism
The work of D.L. Moody and the establishment of non-denominational & trans-denominational institutes and organizations attempted to consolidate the gains from the revival of 1858 and its aftereffects as well as minister to America in the wake of the Civil War. These achievements laid the groundwork for much of modern evangelicalism that Billy Sunday & Billy Graham would become the face of.
Modernization
Sociologists and historians often define “modernization” as a society’s complex movement from an agricultural, rural, and traditional context to a “modern” industrial, technological society that is urbanized, democratic, and pluralistic. The process of modernization occurred in America in the decades between the Civil War & World War I. Modernization, and a simultaneous surge in immigration, had a profound impact upon Christianity in America, which led to Liberal Theology, the reaction of Fundamentalism, and the mediating position of New-Evangelicalism.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Liberal Christianity is a sort of Christian syncretism with the humanistic philosophy of the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thought seemed to be vindicated by the theories of Charles Darwin in his Origin of the Species, 1859, and thus became entrenched in mainstream thought and wormed its way into seemingly every discipline.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Historians like Hegel adopted it. Philosophers like Kant built upon it. Social reformers like Marx used it. Finally, theologians (mainly beginning in Germany) began to adopt Enlightenment thought into theology.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Liberal theology resulted in a total gutting of traditional, orthodox theology. Liberalism was Darwinian. Liberalism denied the supernatural including the idea of revelation, miracles, the resurrection, the reality of sin and the necessity of conversion.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Liberal theology focused on social change rather than personal evangelism. Liberalism (a.k.a. Modernism) infiltrated and dominated nearly every major college and university of nearly every denomination. This set the stage for the Modernist-Fundamentalist Controversy (1910-1930).
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
The conflict began to take shape with the beginning of Bible Conferences and written publications (c. 1860-1919). Men like A.C. Dixon, R.A. Torrey, B.B. Warfield, & J. Gresham Machen began to respond by emphasizing the “fundamentals” of orthodox faith and exposing Liberalism as the opposite of genuine Christianity. Thus, “Fundamentalism” was a response against Liberalism, which occurred within most mainline denominations.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Although the effort was valiant during the militant stage of Fundamentalism (c. 1919-1940), the results were meager, especially after the Scopes Monkey Trial in 1925, which some identify as the demise of Fundamentalism. The Scopes Monkey Trial was an all-out duel between science & religion, but popular opinion shifted against religion, especially against Fundamentalism. Fundamentalists were driven out of most colleges, universities, and denominations to go start their own, but were later plagued with a chronic anti-intellectualism & a lack of scholarship.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
The militant & colorful history of “Fundamentalism” led to a polarizing between themselves and Liberals. A new phase in the Fundamentalist movement began c. 1940-1955 with younger, more scholarly Fundamentalists that tried to better articulate the doctrines of Fundamentalism. These younger Fundamentalists came back from WW2 and had G.I. money that paid their way through higher education.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
The defining moment of this movement came in 1948 when Harold Ockenga coined the term “neo-evangelical” as he called his fellow Fundamentalists not to merely isolate but reengage in public social issues. The movement became officially known as “New Evangelicalism” with the publication of Christian Life magazine in March 1956. Their watchwords were “relevant” & “tolerant.”
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Though Okenga coined the term “New Evangelical,” the face of Evangelicalism would be Okenga’s younger contemporary, a dynamic young preacher named Billy Graham (1918-2018). While doing evangelistic meetings in L.A. in 1949, local journalists ran a puff piece on Billy Graham, which resulted in media coverage and an extended month of meetings with subsequent notoriety.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association was founded in 1950, and Graham began holding evangelistic crusades all over the world. Though not an academician himself, Graham lent his influence to help reestablish evangelical academic respectability. Controversy around Billy Graham exploded during his New York crusade in 1957 when he allowed non-evangelicals to participate in the crusade.
Liberalism, Fundamentalism, & New-Evangelicalism
Fundamentalists like John R. Rice & Bob Jones II sounded the alarm and called for separation from Graham (i.e., the separatist phase of Fundamentalism, c. 1955-80s), yet Graham would go on to shape modern Christianity, especially in the spirit of ecumenicalism and an emphasis on social movements such as battling poverty, supporting civil rights, & opposing things like abortion. In his later years Graham began to associate more and more with Catholics and other non-evangelicals, insisting that he shared with them more commonalities than differences.
Post-Modernism
Major cultural and philosophical shifts occurred in the Western World beginning around 1975, which resulted in a new era. Post-Modernism is exactly what it sounds like, it is the era beyond Modernism. Modernism was an optimistic age of “progress” brought on by the industrial revolution, advances in Science, Technology, & Education. Modernism promised a coming utopian age but delivered instead two World Wars and countless other conflicts.
Post-Modernism
Post-Modernism is a cultural reaction against Modernism. It is critical and cynical rather than optimistic and utopian. Post-Modernism rejects the idea of absolute truth and embraces individualism & relativity in all things. Though it started as a critique of Modernism in the writings of the French philosopher Foucault (Foo Koh) (1926-1984), it ends up with the inconsistencies & absurdities of the LGBTQ movement, because its absolute rejection of all absolutes!
Post-Christian & Post-Secular
The world population went from a few hundred million in 1900, to several billion in just a century. This advance in population is matched by the rapid succession of ideas and worldviews. The Christian era of the Medieval and Reformation era was overtaken by the Modernist worldview in the 1800-1900’s.
Post-Christian & Post-Secular
The Post-Modern era appears in the 1970-80’s. Yet this era morphed into the Post-Christian era around the year 2000, where most of the population embraced atheism and/or secularism. This was then followed by the Post-Secular era around 2010, which evidenced frustration in the bankruptcy of secularism. The rapid succession of worldviews has had a profound impact upon American Evangelicalism. David Wells puts it this way…
Evangelical Drift
“As evangelicalism has continued to grow numerically, it has seeped through its older structures and now spills out in all directions, producing a family of hybrids whose theological connections are quite baffling: evangelical Catholics, evangelicals who are Catholic, evangelical liberationists, evangelicals who are liberationists, evangelical feminists, evangelical ecumenists, ecumenists who are evangelical, young evangelicals, orthodox evangelicals, radical evangelicals, liberal evangelicals, Liberals who are evangelical, and charismatic evangelicals.
Evangelical Drift
The word evangelical, precisely because it has lost its confessional dimension, has become descriptively anemic. To say that someone is an evangelical says little about what they are likely to believe (although it says more if they are older and less if they are younger). And so, the term is forced to compensate for its theological weakness by borrowing meaning from adjectives the very presence of which signals the fragmentation and disintegration of the movement. What is now primary is not what is evangelical, but what is adjectivally distinctive, whether Catholic, liberationist, feminist, ecumenist, young, orthodox, radical, liberal, or charismatic.
Evangelical Drift
It is, I believe, the dark prelude to death, when parasites have finally succeeded in bringing down their host. Amid the clamor of all these new models of evangelical faith there is the sound of a death rattle. . . . It is not hard to see that the disappearance of a center of values in culture is now paralleled by a disappearance of a theological center in evangelicalism.” (David Wells, p. 134)
This quote from Wells is well illustrated by a short snapshot of the Charismatic movement.
Charismatics
The modern Charismatic movement roots back to the Holiness movement, which began within the Methodist denomination in the 1830s. Wesley taught the concepts of second blessing and entire sanctification.
Charismatics
Sarah & Phoebe Palmer (1807-74) underwent emotional experiences that they equated with second blessing theology and began to teach that it could be sought rather than waited for (i.e., her “altar theology,” would later evolve into “name it & claim it” theology & the faith healing movement).
Charismatics
Palmer’s theology caught on and evolved into a series of revival tours led by Palmer and Charles Finney (1840-60s), then Holiness conferences (including the famous Keswick Convention in 1875), and finally into Holiness oriented branches of Methodism (e.g., Church of the Nazarene (c. 1895).
Charles Parham
Charismatics
Charles Parham (1873-1929) began teaching the concept of a third blessing as the highest form of Christian living, which would be signified by the supernatural speaking in tongues. He also taught that a dramatic outpouring of the Spirit and a global revival would precede the return of Christ.
Charles Parham
Charismatics
Sure enough, Parham’s followers soon began to experience speaking in tongues, seemingly validating his teaching. Parham became a sensation overnight. William Seymour, a student of Parham, took this Pentecostal theology to Los Angeles in 1906 & led “the Azusa St. Revival,” and soon outpaced Parham in fame and influence.
William & Jennie Seymour
Charismatics
Pentecostalism spread like wildfire and became both racially integrated and gender inclusive in its leadership but remained on the outskirts of evangelicalism until after WW2, when TV evangelists popularized it and people within mainstream denominations began experiencing charismatic gifts.
William & Jennie Seymour
Charismatics
Leaders with powerful personalities (Dennis Bennett, Oral Roberts, Pat Robertson, Benny Hinn), independent sympathizers like Chuck Smith and the Calvary Chapel movement, as well as church networks like the Vineyard have launched Charismaticism into the center of evangelicalism. Now Charismaticism is the largest and fastest growing segment of modern evangelicalism, yet many of its most outspoken leaders (esp. the NAR movement) are beginning to denigrate and even deny some of the core ideals of historic evangelicalism.
The Emerging Middle
In his widely used book, Bebbington writes that historically there “are four qualities that have been special marks of Evangelical religion: conversionism, the belief that lives need to be changed; activism, the expression of the gospel in effort; biblicism, a particular regard for the Bible; and crucicentrism, a stress on the sacrifice of Christ on the cross.
The Emerging Middle
Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism.” During the early decades of the 21st century, the moderate ‘fundamentalist” orb and the conservative “evangelical” orb began to emerge in a similar camp.
The Emerging Middle
This emerging middle as some scholars call it “is perhaps the most authentic representation of historic fundamentalism, which is in fact historic evangelicalism!” Yet the trends for the future are clear… the younger generations of Millennials and Generation Z are becoming disenchanted with the “Conservative Evangelicalism” of the last 25 years.
Latest Stats
Our day consists of theological diversity, ethnic diversity, pluralism (cultural, social, theological), evolving ecclesiologies, marital role changes, gender issues, the decline of denominationalism, the growing disenchantment over our heritage, political antagonism, etc. Today we are witnessing among younger evangelicals a strong politically progressive evangelicalism, open Charismaticism, and the blind following of celebrity pastors.
Latest Stats
The research of David Kinnaman, president of the evangelical Barna Group, found the prevailing perception of Christians by outsiders is that they are hypocritical, too focused on getting converts, anti-homosexual, out of touch, too political, and overly judgmental. Yet the most startling conclusion in Kinnaman’s research was that many of the under-thirty Christians actually share the same perception of American Christianity as the outsiders.
Latest Stats
However, in contrast to some of these predictions, Christianity in America is currently experiencing a period of relative stability after years of decline, with about 62% of U.S. adults identifying as Christians. This marks a significant drop from 78% in 2007, but the percentage has remained fairly consistent since 2019. Among those who identify as “Christian” 40% identify as Protestant, 19% as Catholic, and 3% as Other Christian Groups. Younger adults (ages 18-29) show significantly lower rates of Christian identification, with only 46% identifying as Christians compared to 80% of older adults.
Where do we go from here?
Regardless of the current statistics, sociologist Christian Smith and researcher David Kinnaman have independently concluded that the majority of young evangelicals who remain in the church are not able to articulate their faith. We must be careful. Jesus did not call His church to build buildings, websites, or worship services. He called His followers to “make disciples.” One problem is that too many parents rely too heavily on the church to disciple their kids. We are ALL called to the task of discipleship! The future of evangelicalism lies, as always, in the resolve and choices of we who will lead in the next decades. We must get back to the basics (cf. Matt. 28:18-20).
An Encouraging Example
Solomon Stoddard (1643-1729) & his wife Esther were the grandparents of Jonathan Edwards. Among their descendants were 14 presidents of colleges, more than 100 college professors, more than 100 lawyers, 30 judges, 60 physicians, more than 100 clergyman, Missionaries, and theology professors, and about 60 authors.
An Encouraging Example
There is scarcely any great American industry that has not had one of his family among its chief promoters. Such is the product of one American Christian family, reared under the most favorable conditions. (As quoted by Oswald Sanders, in a spiritual clinic, moody press, 1958, page 90.)
An Encouraging Example
If God can use the faithfulness of Stoddard & Edwards to marshal an enormous positive influence throughout the culture and history of America, then may God use us to do the same!