University of Mosul, �College of Arts, �Department of History

First lecture

What are the primary sources for ancient Greek history?

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Dr. Muhannad Khamis Abdullah

Geographical background of Greece.

Before we move on to the cultures that formed the roots of Greek civilization, it will be useful to take a look at the geography of the Aegean Sea, where these civilizations were located. The geography of the Aegean Sea or more. When we speak of the Aegean world in the broadest sense, we roughly mean the countries bordering the Aegean Sea. The countries are understandable. Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, western Anatolia, and the Aegean Sea are within the scope of the world. The Aegean Sea, Macedonia, and Thrace to the north, Greece borders the western Anatolian coast to the east, and the island of Crete to the south. The main islands in the Aegean Sea are Thasos to the north, Samothrace

• Samothrace), Imbros (Gökçeida), Tenedos (Bozcaada), and Lemnos (Limnos); to the west, near the Anatolian coast, from north to south, Lesbos (Medilli), Chios (Chios), Samos, Kos, and Rhodes; the islands closest to Greece are, from north to south, the northern Sporades, Euboea, and the Cyclades, and to the south, Crete. In fact, the aforementioned islands, Rhodes and Kos, are located in Anatolia. They are part of the Dodecanese island group off the southwest coast. Today, the islands of Imbros (Gökçeida) and Tenedos are in the Aegean Sea

What are the primary sources for ancient Greek history?

• The primary sources for ancient Greek history are divided into two parts:
• 1- Archaeological sources: These include the archaeological remains that have reached us from ancient Greece, including sculpture, architecture, pottery, and coins. (The student should provide at least one example of each of these elements.)

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1. Architecture :-
1. It appears in palaces, temples, theaters, tombs, and other urban buildings. For example, the royal palace in the city of Knossos, north of the island of Crete, contains huge halls, which indicates that it is not just a palace, but a center for government administration.
2. The nature of the palace’s area has shown us that the king’s authority was broad, encompassing all of Crete, which formed a large state with its center in the city of Knossos. We also understand from it the nature of the construction, building, architectural engineering, and the types of materials used in its construction.

• 2- Written sources: These include the writings that have reached us from the period under study, whether they are direct historical writings such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Plutarch, and Xenophon, or indirect writings such as Homer, Hesiod, and Pindarus, as well as dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, and even philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. (The student must provide at least one detailed example of these writings.)

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Lecture 2: �Cretan Civilization

• Crete and the Minoan Civilization About 120 km from the Peloponnese Peninsula in southern Greece, Crete, located in the southeast of the island, also forms the southern border of the Aegean Sea. Stretching from east to west, Crete is the largest island in the Aegean Sea. It is 250 km long and 50 km wide. The island has an area of 8,300 hectares.

• km2. The most important mountains in Crete, which have a mountainous natural structure, are located from west to east. Towards the White Mountains are Mount Ida and Mount Dikti with its 2,500-meter peak. Crete's largest plain is the Messara Plain in the south. Some of them are described as palaces. Settlement centers are mostly concentrated in the eastern half of the island. It can be said that the livelihood of the people living in Crete depended on fishing, agriculture and animal husbandry. The most important agricultural products were wheat, olives, figs and grapes;

• Livestock farming was based primarily on sheep, goats, and pigs. Crete's most important centers were Knossos in the north of the central part, and Phaistos and Hagia Sophia in the south. The triad was Malia, Makhlava, Gournia, Petras, Palekastro, and Zakros in the east. The most important settlement in the western half was Kydonia (Chania). Among these centers were palaces at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, and Petras.

• After this brief introduction to the island, we will now turn to the Cretan civilization, considered the cradle of ancient Hellenistic civilization and thus of today's European civilization. We can pass. There is no doubt that the title attributed to Crete as the "cradle of European civilization" is not a claim of ethnic origin, but rather a cultural origin or cultural heritage. We must point out that there is research. The Cretans were foreign to the Indo-European language group. They spoke a language and therefore belonged to a later civilization. They were not the ancestors of the ancient Greeks who left their mark on the world. Cretan Ethnicities in the Bronze Age

• Although its origin has not yet been explained, the island's first settlers likely dated back to the Paleolithic period, and it has been suggested that they may have come from Anatolia at the end of the period or at the beginning of the Neolithic. Some scholars believe that where this suddenly emerging civilization on Crete acquired its cultural resources? Perhaps the cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, which experienced their most brilliant periods in the period, reached Crete via East and North Africa. Thus, the Middle Bronze Age, in its early stages, that is, before Christ, was in its early stages. At the beginning of the second millennium BC, Crete was characterized by magnificent palaces. A high civilization arose, and this civilization persisted throughout the Middle Bronze Age, maintaining its importance and influence; its decline began with the Late Bronze Age.

Lecture 3 �Troy

• Troy ranks first among the important centers of Anatolia in the Early Bronze Age. Troy I - IV. These layers date back to the Early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC). In the Early Bronze Age, the city of Troy looked like a fortress, and it had megaron-style planned structures surrounded by walls. Troy in this period had a human face.

• The vessels and bowls called dipas amphikipylon attract attention. Metal artifacts have also been discovered, demonstrating the advanced stage of handicraftsmanship. H. Schliemann, 1870-1977, excavated at Hisarlik without permission from the Ottoman Empire, beginning on October 11, 1871. In 1873, Schliemann, from the surface of the hill at a depth of 8.5 meters, unearthed 8,830 artifacts made of gold, galvanized iron, silver, and bronze, which he named Priam's Treasure. This second discovery refers to the destruction of Troy.

• The layer now dates back to 2600-2200 BC. Schliemann concealed the treasure from the Ottoman authorities and smuggled it to Athens. The gold and silver artifacts found in the excavations of Troy, commonly known as the Trojan Treasure, are today scattered among various museums in Europe and the United States, most of them in the Pushkin Museum in Russia. A collection of artifacts belonging to their treasures is also housed in the Troy Archaeological Museums in Istanbul and the Çanakkale Museum.

• The city of Troy, located in the northwestern corner of Anatolia, was built around 3000 BC. It also served as a settlement in the 2nd millennium BC. The fifth layer of Troy dates back to the Middle Bronze Age, a transitional period to the 6th layer. The sixth layer represents the Middle and Late Bronze Ages BC and covers the 2nd millennium. The seventh layer is the end of the Bronze Age, or BC. It is the end of the 2nd millennium. The seventh layer of the Trojan War, or the 6th, is represented by layers and is believed to have taken place in one of the cities (around the second half of the 13th century BC).

Lecture Four: �Greek Migrations

• Aegean and Doric Jars As emphasized in the previous unit, the destruction of the Achaean (Mycenaean) centers occurred in the late 13th or early 12th century BC. This period was also the scene of Aegean migration, and the destruction of the Achaean centers is linked to these migrations. Troy and the Hittites at about the same time.

• The country has been erased from the stage of history. Two population movements stand out in the Aegean migration: the Sea Peoples and the Dorians. Around 1200 BC, the collapse of one great power after another led scholars to develop the Sea Peoples theory.

• These people likely came from the north, from the Balkan Mountains, to Greece. They passed through Anatolia and reached Egypt. Egypt was attacked twice by these tribes, first in the late 13th century and then at the beginning of the 12th century. When the Sea Peoples reached Egypt, they encountered fierce opposition and were pushed back. This 19th-century theory, which gives the impression of a scenario that has long been accepted and imposed, has lost its validity.

• Another migration movement that is emphasized within the framework of the Aegean migration is that of the Dorians. It is claimed to have been carried out by the Dorians. The Dorians, who came from northern Greece to southern Greece, settled mostly in the Peloponnese; later, some migrated to southwestern Anatolia. As mentioned above, it has been suggested that the Dorians may also have played a role in the destruction of the Achaean centers. However, Greek tradition attributes the Dorian migration to the Heraclean tribes, who had earlier been expelled from Greece and returned to their homeland. Migration across the Aegean Sea

• Other communities living in Greece migrated within Greece. As it happened, these communities migrated from Greece and settled in the Aegean region. This later period became a scene of activity. BC, marked by the destruction of Achaean centers as well as Aegean and Doric migrations. The Bronze Age ended in the Aegean region in the 12th century, and the Iron Age began. The reason for the new era's name is that bronze was used as a new metal in the production of various items, tools, and weapons. Iron also began to be used.

• The Aeolians were the first to arrive in western Anatolia. The Aeolians, coming from the regions of the island of Lesbos and northeastern Western Anatolia, settled in the eastern part (the Gulf of Edremit and its surroundings). Therefore, this region is called Aeolis and takes its name from it. Herodotus (1.149) speaks of twelve Aeolian cities. These cities are Kymi (Alia Agha Nemrut Gulf), Larissa (the village of Boroncuuk), Neonthicho (Yannikoy), Temenos (Gurisi-Kayacik Hill), Killa (near the village of Zeytinli?), Notion (Ahmedbeyli), Aigeroysa (the village of Kavaklidere), Bethany (Çandarlı),

• They started from the region of Attica, where Athens is located, and the island of Evia. The Ionians settled in the central part of western Anatolia, and the region was named after them. Therefore, it was called Ionia. There is no doubt that the Ionian colonization was more advanced than the Aeolian colonization. But again, BC. It occurred in the late 10th century. The Ionians, the Peloponnesians, were exiled from their homeland in the north and settled temporarily in Athens. According to tradition, they settled in western Anatolia under the leadership of the sons of the Athenian king Codrus. They migrated to Izmir and its environs.

• The southern border of Ionia extended as far as the Büyük Menderes River. The twelve Ionian cities mentioned by Herodotus ( I.142) are Miletus (Balat), Myos (Avshar village), Priene (Golubahas), Ephesus (Selçuk), Colophon (Degirmendere), Lepidos (Gumuldor), Teos (Sigagic), Klazomenae (Urla), Phocaea (Old Phoca), Chios (Chios island), Erythrae (Elderi), and Samos (Samos island). These cities were later listed as Smyrna III. The twelve Ionian cities, the Panionians (Ionians), formed a federation under the umbrella of the Union. The meeting place of this religious and political union was in the land of Priene, on the site of today's Guzelcamli.

Lecture 5: �The Political System in Athens

• As city-states developed, the wealthy and the nobility settled in these areas. Friction began between the upper class and the common people. The middle and lower classes were not satisfied with the interpretation and application of laws or rules regulating social life according to customs, traditions, and norms; because this was the extent of their nobility. The class had its own way, and the rules of law were somewhat in favor of the nobility. The conflict between the lower strata of society, who wanted to codify laws, and the aristocracy, yielded positive results. Thus, the law was written.

• As a result of this determination, anyone could decide what punishment would be given for what type of crime or what was considered a crime. He learned whether it mattered or not. It was accepted almost as a divine decree, and from oral laws ( thesmoi) , which were beneficial to aristocrats, to all segments of society, the transition to written laws (nomoi), which regulated social and political life fairly, was also an important step toward democracy. Concern about double standards in the concept of justice was now emerging. It is also noteworthy that laws came in written form. They were known in earlier ancient Eastern societies.

• Among the first lawmakers ( nomothetai) we can see was Dracon of Athens (c. 624 BC/621 BC). When the administrative and authority problems that arose in the second half of the seventh century combined with difficult economic conditions, Athens fell into a social and political crisis. Radical steps were necessary to overcome the problems. At this stage, Dracon came to give a new order to society. We see his emergence. He was the first to codify the laws of Athens and

• It was Dracon who wrote it. But we have no other information other than the name of this legislator. Dracon would be judged primarily for murder and rape. The punishments imposed were extremely severe. So much so that Dracon even had a saying that "he wrote his laws in blood." Dracon was also the first to suggest that there should be a distinction between the punishment for premeditated murder and manslaughter. While the death penalty was imposed for premeditated murder, the punishment for murder committed without prior planning was simply exile. Harsh laws were the power the aristocracy held over the people. This was the expression.

Solon

• was the noble statesman and Athenian poet Solon, who lived before Christ. The reforms he implemented at the beginning of the sixth century are very important. At a time when discontent among the lower classes was reaching dangerous proportions, the Athenians established their own empire in 3000 BC. In 594 AD, they elected Solon as head of state. He was in a state of turmoil and was asked to solve economic and political problems. Solon, with the support of the government, began designing and implementing reforms from that date. Solon's reforms were implemented in two areas: the economy and society (the constitution). In the area of economics: B.G. 6-5 In Attica, a period in the tenth century, when the aristocratic landowning families ( eupatridai) became wealthy and increased their power at the expense of the poor, was real. To restore the balance that had been tipping in favor of the poor or middle class, Solon worked,

• First, to prevent peasants from losing their land and freedom due to their debts, he reached an agreement in favor of the villagers regarding debt repayment and even the complete cancellation of debts. The complete cancellation of debts, and the liberation from the burden, was called "emancipation." Those enslaved due to their debts were given their freedom back. He also gained the popular support through his agrarian reform. To some extent, Solon was trying to limit the power of the aristocrats.

• Solon also argued that in order to prevent Athens from facing economic problems, he introduced the more convenient Euboean weight system instead of the Attic system of weights and measures used for coinage until then. In keeping with the country's needs, he prohibited the export of other agricultural products except olive oil. Because Athens' olive oil production was so large, it was unnecessary to keep this surplus for the domestic market, and other exports were more plentiful outside of Attica than within it, the goal was to prevent it from being sold at high prices.