The Writing Process

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James McClure, Writing Consultant and Academic Coach

james.mcclure@unb.ca

The Core Structure of Paper

The Structure of a Paper

• Most academic papers contain three core sections:

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• Introduction
• Body paragraph(s)
• Conclusion

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• Some assignments will also include title pages, abstracts, executive summaries, References/Works Cited/Bibliography sections, etc., but those are usually in addition to the three core components.

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The Introduction

Your introduction should accomplish four things:

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• Introduce and contextualize the focus (main topic) of the paper.

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• Define the scope of the discussion.

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• Clarify the purpose of the paper.

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• Set the readers expectations by telegraphing the paper’s main contents.

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The Intro: Establish the Focus

Introduce and contextualize the paper’s focus (main topic).

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• Provide background information on the topic.
• e.g., online courses in university.
• What does online learning entail?
• How does it change the relationship between student and teacher?
• What are some of the major advantages and disadvantages of this method for delivering instruction?

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• Make sure to also address why that topic matters (i.e., why does it deserve the reader’s attention? What makes this topic significant to academic research?)
• E.g., if you’re writing about online courses . . .
• Why is this method for delivering instruction worth addressing?
• What are the benefits of expanding, innovating, promoting, etc. this form of instruction?
• What are the challenges in expanding, innovating, promoting, etc. online courses?

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The Intro: Define the Scope

Define the scope of the discussion.

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• You have a finite number of words/pages to address the topic, so you’ll need to narrow your focus.
• E.g., you cannot possibly discuss online learning at every university on earth, so you’ll need to narrow the scope of this discussion considerably.

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• How will you address this topic in your paper? What is the context of the discussion? What specific aspect(s) of the topic will you address?
• E.g., online learning at UNB, universities in New Brunswick, or universities in Canada.

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The Intro: Clarify the Purpose

Clarify the purpose of the paper

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• Common purposes include
• supporting a thesis,
• pursuing a research question,
• developing a line of argument/inquiry,
• testing a hypothesis,
• or assessing current scholarship on a subject.

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• E.g., Expanding online learning at UNB will benefit the campus . . .

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The Intro: Telegraph the Main Contents

Set the readers expectations by telegraphing the paper’s main contents.

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• What major subtopics will you address in this paper?
• What counter arguments/differing viewpoints need to be addressed in order to develop a comprehensive discussion of the main topic?
• In many cases, much of this content will be included in the statement that clarifies the paper’s purpose.
• E.g., expanding online learning at UNB will benefit the campus by increasing student enrollment, improving student retention, and enhancing student satisfaction with course delivery.

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• Make sure these subtopics are all related to the paper’s focus and purpose (i.e., each one is a specific aspect of the main topic and develops the paper’s purpose)

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The Body Paragraphs

• Body paragraph 1

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• Start with a topic sentence that introduces the paragraph’s focus and purpose.
• What will this section address? What main point(s) are you trying to establish here?

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• Support your main point(s) with evidence.
• Clarify how this evidence supports your main point(s) in this section.

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• Interpret the significance of that evidence for the reader.
• Why is this evidence worth noting in your discussion? How does it affect someone’s understanding of the topic(s) of discussion in this paragraph?
• Remember that fulfilling a paper’s purpose is like solving a math problem: You need to show the reader the steps through which you came to your conclusions.

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• Establish the importance of the idea(s) explored in this paragraph.
• Why does this point/these points matter to the overall purpose of the paper (from the introduction)?

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The Body Paragraphs (continued)

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• Body paragraph 2

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• Begin a new paragraph whenever the main topic of discussion changes.
• If the new paragraph starts where the last one left off, begin with a new topic sentence.
• If the new para. does not start where the last one left off, add a segue before the topic sentence.

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• Effective segues improve the flow and cohesion of the paper.
• An effective segue should establish how the new topic of discussion relates to the previous topic so that the reader understands why you’re addressing this material here instead of another part of the paper.

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• Repeat the approach to the content from para. 1

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• Body paragraph 3 (and 4, 5, 6, etc.)

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• Repeat the process from paragraph 2.

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Sample Paragraphs

     At the outbreak of the First World War, Canada had sufficient volunteers to meet the dominion's military commitments to Great Britain. However, as the conflict exceeded the initial expectation that victory would be achieved by Christmas 1914, the number of volunteers began to dwindle. As a result, the Canadian government resorted to forcing civilians into military service through conscription. 

 When conscription took effect in 1917, the new war policy met fierce opposition from several groups, including French-Canadians, farmers, and residents of non-British descent. 

Transition needed?

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Sample Paragraphs

     Martin Luther King Jr. was a hero of the Civil Rights Movement, which began in the 1950s. King helped organize boycotts, marches, and other non-violent demonstrations to oppose racist laws in America. For example, he co-led the March on Washington in 1963, where he addressed crowds of protestors with the "I Have a Dream" speech. His efforts raised awareness of social injustices in American society and helped people of colour obtain greater rights and freedoms than they had in previous generations.

      Malcolm X initially encouraged his supporters to pursue social justice "by any means necessary." In other words, he supported violent as well as nonviolent efforts to create a more equitable society.

Transition needed?

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Sample Sentences

1. There was nothing to eat at home. I went to a restaurant.
2. All common knowledge is factual. Not all facts are common knowledge. 
3. New Brunswick is experiencing a nursing shortage. Nova Scotia does not have a sufficient number of nurses. 
4. All life on Earth depends on the sun. Without the sun's warmth, the planet would become uninhabitable due to extremely low temperatures. 

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Using Transitional Words Between Points

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Common Transitional Words and Phrases

Addition, Similarity, Comparison

• Similarly
• Moreover
• Furthermore
• In addition
• Likewise
•  Not only . . . but also . . .
• Likewise
• Also 

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Contrast or Counterpoint

• However
• Unlike
• Conversely
• In contrast
• Instead of
• Regardless
• Nevertheless
• Nonetheless

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Result or Consequence

• Thus
• Therefore
• As a result,
• Consequently
• Hence
• In light of *_*
• With that in mind,
• Accordingly

The Conclusion

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Conclusions: Looking at the Big Picture

• Address the larger implications of your analysis, establish the importance of this discussion, or indicate key areas for further inquiry/discussion/analysis.

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• Why do the points raised in this paper matter?

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• Why is this discussion worth considering? Why is it worth the reader’s time?

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• How might the discussion of this topic change in the near future due to technological innovation, socioeconomic factors, etc. mentioned in your research?

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The Writing Process

“The first step in successful academic writing is recognizing that writing is not simply a single act, but a process with steps and stages; understanding and participating in these stages will result in better essays that are easier to write.”

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—Grant Heckman

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Writing: Composing the First Draft

Focus on convincing yourself

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Avoid stopping to proofread your material

• The first draft is a working draft, so focus on developing the content rather than polishing the presentation of ideas.

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Modify your purpose and supporting points/arguments as needed.

• Ensure that the content of the working draft reflects the paper’s purpose. 
• Add topic sentences to clarify the focus and purpose of each paragraph.

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Set the paper aside for 1-2 days before revising it.

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Reviewing the First Draft

• Read over the first draft and put together a to-do list for the first revision.

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• Identify gaps in your discussion. These gaps could include . . .
• definitions of key terms
• necessary background information on specific topics
• examples to illustrate crucial points
• contextual information on sources
• weak spots in arguments/analysis
• potential counterarguments
• missing information/citations.  

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• Conduct additional research as necessary.

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• Reassess the structure and organization of the paper.

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• Watch for material that does not support your paper’s purpose.
• remember that the purpose is your paper's gatekeeper: Nothing should be added to the paper unless it supports the overarching purpose. 

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Preparing the �Second Draft

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1. Focus on persuading the reader

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• Start a new file for the new draft

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• Address further gaps in your discussion
• Perform additional research, if necessary.

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• Check each paragraph against your paper’s purpose to verify that the content still supports your main objective. 

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• Assess the order of paragraphs to ensure that the overall discussion is structured in a logical, accessible, and persuasive manner. 
• Reorganize paragraphs as needed.
• Remember that structure is an essential part of persuasion.

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This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Preparing a Review Copy

• What is a review copy?
• a version of the paper for someone else to read over
• Does each topic sentence reflect content of the paragraph?

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• Have you provided sufficient support for the main points in each paragraph?
• Conduct further research if needed.
• Have you added transitional words, phrases, or sentences at the beginning of each paragraph (as needed) to improve flow? 

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• Have you proofread for issues with spelling/grammar, tone, repetition, wordiness/word choice, and sentence structure? 
• Who could review the draft with you?
• writing consultant, classmate, trusted friend, family member. 

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The Final Draft

1. Implement suggestions from your reviewer (judiciously).

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• Ensure the content of each paragraph is focused, thorough, and cohesive.
• condense paragraphs or add new ones as needed to improve coherence and flow of content.

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• Read the paper aloud.
• The ear is often a better editor than the eye.
• Listen for awkward phrases, overly long sentences, odd word choices, etc.

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• Proofread each sentence individually
• Consider starting from the end and working backwards.

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• Add/complete References page 
• Proofread your citations at least once.

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• Submit the paper

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This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC