CHAPTER 22
Money-Credit System
Banks & Their Role in
Market Economy
Money Circulation • Inflation • Credit • Banking System • National Currency Policy
Topics�22.1 Money Circulation�22.2 Inflation�22.3 Credit�22.4 Banking System�22.5 Currency Policy
CHAPTER
22
Overview
22.1
Money Circulation
& Its Laws
22.2
Inflation & Its
Causes
22.3
Credit: Essence,
Sources & Functions
22.4
Banking System
SECTION
22.1
Money Circulation
& Its Laws
WHAT IS MONEY CIRCULATION?
Money Circulation — the continuous movement of money in the process of performing its functions. It serves the circulation of goods as well as non-commodity payments and settlements.
1
National Currency Unit
The base monetary unit legally established by the state (som, dollar, euro, yen, pound sterling, etc.)
2
Means of Payment
Paper money, coins, plastic cards, and credit money serving as legally recognized payment instruments.
3
Money Emission System
The legally established system for issuing money into circulation in an orderly manner.
4
State Regulatory Bodies
Government institutions responsible for regulating money circulation within the economy.
CASH VS. CASHLESS CIRCULATION
CASH CIRCULATION
Instruments:�• Bank notes (banknotes)�• Metal coins�• Physical currency��In developed markets:�Cash represents only 9–10% of total money supply.��In transition economies:
Cash represents 35–40% of total money supply — reflecting lower banking penetration and trust.
CASHLESS CIRCULATION
Instruments:�• Checks�• Credit cards / Plastic cards�• Bills of exchange (Veksels)�• Letters of credit�• Payment claims�• Bank transfers��All these are collectively called Money Aggregates.
The total money mass = cash + credit money combined.
MONEY AGGREGATES (M0–M3)
The total money supply is calculated using money aggregates M1–Mn. All aggregates together form the gross money supply (total money offer).
M0
Physical Cash
All circulating cash: paper banknotes and metal coins currently in active circulation in the economy.
M1
M0 + Demand Deposits
M0 + household current account balances + enterprise account funds + bank demand deposits. Highly liquid — can be used directly for payments.
M2
M1 + Time Deposits
M1 + commercial bank time deposits + savings accounts + specialized financial institution deposits + other assets. These cannot be directly transferred — primarily serve as savings instruments.
M3
M2 + Long-Term Instruments
M2 + bank certificates + targeted loan bonds + state loan bonds + treasury obligations. Broadest measure of money supply.
Liquidity decreases from M0 → M3. M0 (coins & notes) has the highest liquidity; M3 instruments are least liquid but broadest.
LAW OF MONEY CIRCULATION
Law of Money Circulation: The amount of money needed for circulation is directly proportional to the sum of commodity prices and inversely proportional to the velocity of money circulation.
Pm = (Tb − Xk + Xt − O'h-k) / At
where: Pm = money needed; Tb = total commodity prices; Xk = credit sales; Xt = due payments; O'h-k = cashless settlements; At = velocity
Volume of Goods
The total sum of goods to be bought and sold in a given period directly determines money demand.
Velocity of Money
How many times a unit of currency changes hands per period. Higher velocity = less money needed.
Credit Development
Goods sold on credit reduce immediate money needs. Conversely, due credit payments increase demand for money.
GOLD vs. PAPER CURRENCY LAWS
GOLD CURRENCY
Self-Regulating System:��• Excess gold flows into the treasury as decorative items�• When more goods require exchange, treasury gold re-enters circulation��Key Relationships:��• Amount needed is INVERSELY proportional to commodity value�• Amount needed is DIRECTLY proportional to gold's own value��Result: Gold currency self-balances automatically — no inflation possible with pure gold standard.
PAPER CURRENCY
Key Principle:��No matter how much paper money is issued, the total value represented equals the value of gold coins needed for circulation.��Paper Money Risk:��• Each unit's purchasing power = gold equivalent ÷ paper notes issued�• Over-issuance causes inflation�• No automatic self-regulation��State obligations, commercial bank liabilities, and other financial assets also function as money in modern economies.
THE MONEY MARKET
Money Market — the mechanism that expresses the mutual relationship between the demand for money and the supply of money at various interest rate levels in an economy.
MONEY SUPPLY
Definition: The sum of all financial assets circulating as money — the total of money aggregates.��Who Controls It:�• Primarily regulated by the Central Bank�• BUT household behavior also influences it�• AND commercial bank policies affect it��Commercial banks can create NEW money by lending their available assets — constrained by Central Bank mandatory reserve requirements.
MONEY DEMAND
Driven by:�• Transaction demand: Need money to buy goods�• Precautionary demand: Savings for emergencies�• Speculative demand: Holding money vs. assets��Interest Rate Effect:�Higher interest rates → more depositing, less cash holding�Lower rates → preference for liquidity��Equilibrium occurs where money supply and demand intersect at a specific interest rate.
THE MONEY SUPPLY MULTIPLIER
Commercial banks can create money by lending. This process — continuously repeating — is called the Money Supply Multiplier or Bank Multiplier.
Money Multiplier Formula:
m = Ms / R OR m = 1 / r
m = multiplier coefficient | Ms = additional deposit growth | R = additional reserves | r = reserve ratio (%)
How the Multiplier Works:
1
Bank receives deposit from customer
2
Keeps required reserve (r%) for safety
3
Lends excess (1-r)% to borrowers
4
Borrower spends — enters another bank as deposit
5
Process repeats → new money created
SECTION
22.2
Inflation & Its
Causes
WHAT IS INFLATION?
Inflation (from Latin: inflation = swelling/expansion) — the depreciation of paper money connected with violations of the laws of money circulation. It first appeared in North America during the Civil War (1861–1865) to describe excess paper money in circulation.
Three Ways Paper Money Depreciates During Inflation:
vs. GOLD
Au
Manifests as an increase in the market price of gold measured in paper money.
vs. GOODS
↑
Manifests as a general rise in prices of goods and services across the economy.
vs. FOREIGN CURRENCIES
$
Manifests as a decline in the national currency exchange rate relative to foreign currencies.
MEASURING INFLATION
PRICE INDEX (NI)
NI = (TNj / TNb) × 100%
NI = Price Index
TNj = Current period consumer prices
TNb = Base period consumer prices
INFLATION RATE (IS)
IS = ((TNj − TNb) / TNb) × 100%
IS = Inflation Rate
TNj = Current period prices
TNb = Base (reference) period prices
Result = % price change over period
Types of Price Indices:
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
Tracks retail prices of a basket of goods consumed by households.
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
Tracks prices at the wholesale level before reaching consumers.
GDP Deflator
Price index for all goods and services included in GDP calculation.
Export/Import Price Index
Tracks changes in prices of internationally traded goods.
DEMAND-PULL INFLATION
How It Works
Traditional price level changes are explained by EXCESS AGGREGATE DEMAND.��The Mechanism:�1. Money supply increases�2. Aggregate demand shifts AD₁ → AD₂�3. Production cannot expand further (all resources used)�4. Excess demand pushes prices UP��Key Condition:
When economy is in the vertical (classical) or intermediate zone of the AS curve, price increases result — causing demand-pull inflation.
COST-PUSH (SUPPLY-SIDE) INFLATION
Supply Inflation
Caused by rising production costs and changes in market supply.��The Mechanism:�• AS curve shifts left: AS₁ → AS₂�• Per-unit production costs rise�• Prices increase: P₁ → P₂�• Real output falls: Q₁ → Q₂��Additional Causes:�• Monopolistic activities
• Incorrect tax policies
• Rising world market prices
• Growing military expenditures
TYPES OF INFLATION
CREEPING INFLATION
Up to 10% / year
Moderate, manageable price increases. Considered normal in growing economies. Central banks target rates of 2–4%. Mild impact on economic behavior; some savings erosion.
GALLOPING INFLATION
20% – 200% / year
Serious economic disturbance. Money loses purchasing power rapidly. Businesses struggle to plan. Savings are eroded; people rush to spend or invest in hard assets.
HYPERINFLATION
Over 200% / year
Catastrophic devaluation. Prices change hourly. Money becomes nearly worthless. Historical examples: Weimar Germany 1923, Zimbabwe 2008, Venezuela 2016+. Leads to economic collapse.
By predictability: Expected inflation (can be prepared for) vs. Unexpected inflation (sudden, harder to mitigate).
SECTION
22.3
Credit: Essence,
Sources & Functions
CREDIT: DEFINITION & ESSENCE
Credit — the accumulation of temporarily idle funds in the form of a loan fund and their lending to legal and physical persons needing money for production and other needs for a specified period, to be returned with interest payments.
Loan Capital
Money capital in monetary form. Its movement constitutes the essence of credit.
Two Subjects
Credit relations arise between two parties: the creditor (lender) and the debtor (borrower).
Who Participates?
Enterprises, organizations, state and its institutions, and broad population layers — each can be simultaneously a borrower and a lender.
Object of Credit
The object of credit relations is temporarily idle monetary funds available in society.
SOURCES OF CREDIT RESOURCES
In the reproduction process, as temporarily idle money resources arise, some economic sectors simultaneously need additional funds — these idle funds form the credit resource base.
1. Enterprise Depreciation Funds
Amortization charges accumulate before being used for equipment replacement.
2. Revenue from Product Sales
Cash receipts from selling products that temporarily rest before being spent.
3. Enterprise Special Funds
Production development, science, technology, and material incentive funds.
4. Enterprise Profits
Profits stored in bank accounts until settled with the state budget or used for enterprise needs.
5. Current Resources of Budget Institutions
Temporarily available funds of budget institutions, trade unions, and other social organizations held in banks.
6. Household Idle Funds
Savings and temporarily unused personal monetary resources of the population.
SIX FUNCTIONS OF CREDIT
1
Redistribution
Idle funds of enterprises, state, and households are collected into a loan fund and redistributed according to economic sector needs — ensuring continuity of production.
2
Issuing Payment Instruments
Credit generates payment equivalents: bills of exchange, checks, certificates — introducing them into business practice for efficient settlement.
3
Cost Savings
Develops credit money in place of cash, accelerates money circulation, and reduces circulation costs. Most payments happen in non-cash form.
4
Stimulating Economic Growth
Through the movement of the loan fund — lending and collecting debt — credit stimulates economic growth and investment activity.
5
Economic Control
Through its institutions, credit performs oversight over the economic activities of all subjects — promoting discipline and efficiency.
6
Regulating the Economy
A unique function — regulating the economy through differentiated interest rates, state guarantees, and privilege systems that guide economic development.
TYPES OF CREDIT (Part 1)
Bank Credit
The primary and leading form of credit. Provided by banks and special credit institutions to borrowers (entrepreneurs, state, households) in the form of monetary loans. Banks have material responsibility for their resource use efficiency.
Inter-Enterprise Credit
Provided by one enterprise or institution to another. Serves capital construction, agricultural sector relations, and internal business accounting — credit between business partners.
Commercial Credit
Credit given by enterprises, associations, and other economic subjects to each other. Primarily provided in commodity form through deferred payment arrangements.
Consumer Credit
Provided to private persons for purchasing durable consumer goods: furniture, cars, TV sets, etc. for a specified term. Available through retail stores or bank loans for personal needs. Higher interest rates apply.
TYPES OF CREDIT (Part 2)
Mortgage Credit
(Ipoteka)
Long-term loans secured by immovable property: land, buildings. Issued through mortgage bonds by banks and companies. Used for housing construction and expanding enterprise capacity.
State Credit
A unique form where the STATE is the debtor and the population + private business are creditors. Funded through state debt bonds. Used primarily to cover budget deficits.
International Credit
Represents the movement of loan capital in international economic relations. Provided in commodity or monetary form. Creditors and debtors: banks, private firms, states, international organizations.
Modern Credit Forms:
Leasing
Non-monetary credit. Long-term rental of equipment with option to purchase. Payments over time.
Factoring
Buying/reselling debt obligations between economic entities.
Forfaiting
Long-term factoring where rights purchased can be collected after 1–5 years.
Trust
Operations for managing clients' capital and investment portfolios.
INTEREST RATE & IMPORTANCE OF CREDIT
Interest Rate (r') = (r / K_ssuda) × 100%
where r = interest amount, K_ssuda = loaned capital amount
Significance of Credit in a Market Economy:
📈
Expands Production Scale
Credit serves to expand the scale of social production, enabling enterprises to invest beyond their current cash holdings.
⚡
Rapid Capital Mobilization
Helps quickly attract idle funds and deploy them in the most profitable economic sectors — improving capital allocation efficiency.
💳
Reduces Cash Needs
Ensures reduction of cash in circulation since a significant portion of payments occurs in non-cash form: bills of exchange, checks, electronic transfers.
🔄
Principles of Lending
Credit is governed by: purposefulness (target use), formalized maturity (repayment on time), material security of the loan, and payment (interest obligation).
SECTION
22.4
Banking System:
Central & Commercial
Banks
WHAT IS A BANK? THE CREDIT SYSTEM
Bank — a specialized economic institution that collects, places, and regulates the movement of monetary funds. The primary activity of banks is serving credit relations — they form the core of credit institutions.
Three Links of the Credit System:
1. CENTRAL BANK
The state bank — manages the monetary-credit system in a centralized manner and implements the unified credit policy of the state.
2. BANKING SYSTEM
Commercial banks, savings banks, investment banks, and specialized banks — the backbone of financial intermediation.
3. SPECIAL CREDIT INSTITUTIONS
Insurance companies, pension funds, investment companies, finance companies, and other non-bank financial intermediaries.
The bank system is typically two-tier: Central (emission) bank + Commercial (deposit) bank branch networks.
THE CENTRAL BANK
The state bank manages the monetary-credit system centrally and implements the unified state credit policy.
NOT Profit-Motivated
Unlike commercial banks, the Central Bank does NOT operate for profit. Its goal is improving the overall economic state of the country through monetary-credit and social policy.
Sole Monetary Authority
In most countries there is a single central bank. Policy procedures are established by the highest state authorities. Oversees the entire national bank system.
Money Issuer
Issues money (banknotes), bonds, and obligations. Simultaneously maintains foreign currency reserves. Accepts funds from commercial banks and savings institutions — and lends to them.
Six Functions of the Central Bank:
Maintain mandatory reserves of other banking institutions
Provide check clearance/collection and conduct inter-bank settlements
Implement the state's monetary policy
Coordinate and supervise all bank activities
Exchange national currencies in international foreign exchange markets
Control money supply and issue national currency into circulation
COMMERCIAL BANKS
Commercial banks are joint-stock institutions that credit industrial, trade, and other enterprises using deposited funds. They conduct inter-enterprise settlements and engage in intermediary and foreign exchange operations.
Specialized Commercial Banks
Perform specific types of credit-monetary operations in various economic sectors on commercial principles.
People's Bank (Xalq Banki)
Organizes deposit operations, cashless settlements, cash services for population, and personal loans for citizens.
National Foreign Trade Bank
Provides credit to exporters and importers, participates in joint venture lending, controls foreign exchange use, and organizes external economic settlements.
Investment Banks
Specialized institutions that attract long-term loan capital by issuing bonds and debt obligations, then provide them to clients — primarily state and entrepreneurs.
Mortgage Banks
Specialized in long-term loans secured by real estate: land and buildings. Resources formed through own mortgage bonds. Funds used for housing and industrial construction.
Investment Companies
Collect funds from legal investors by issuing own securities and invest them in shares and bonds of domestic and foreign companies to generate returns on invested capital.
BANK OPERATIONS: PASSIVE & ACTIVE
Banks perform their functions through two interconnected types of operations:
PASSIVE OPERATIONS
Reserve Formation Operations��Involves attracting client deposits into the bank (omonats).��Bank Balance Sheet — Liabilities:�• Bank deposits (primary item)�• Loans taken from other banks�• Bank owner obligations��Purpose: Build reserve base that enables active lending operations.
ACTIVE OPERATIONS
Resource Deployment & Utilization��Placing collected resources to generate income.��Bank Balance Sheet — Assets:�• Cash on hand (paper money, coins)�• Bank deposits (omonats)�• Securities holdings�• Loans issued by the bank��Bank Profit = Interest earned on active operations MINUS interest paid on passive (deposit) operations.
Note: Interest rate on active operations is HIGHER than rate paid on passive operations — the spread is bank profit.
CENTRAL BANK MONETARY POLICY TOOLS
The Central Bank uses tight monetary policy (restrictive) to control inflation by reducing money supply and making credit expensive and difficult to obtain.
📊
Open Market Operations
TIGHT: SELLS government securities → reduces money supply
EASY: BUYS government securities → increases money supply
📉
Discount Rate Policy
TIGHT: RAISES discount rate → credit becomes expensive, borrowing decreases
EASY: LOWERS discount rate → cheaper credit, stimulates borrowing
🏦
Reserve Requirement Ratio
TIGHT: RAISES reserve ratio → less money available for lending
EASY: LOWERS reserve ratio → more money available for lending
Tight policy effect: Reduces investment → aggregate demand falls → inflation is contained and limited.
UZBEKISTAN'S MONETARY-CREDIT POLICY
In Uzbekistan, a SYNTHESIZED variant of two models is applied: Long-term period → Monetarist policy. Short-term period → Fiscal monetary-credit policy using interest rates.
Strict Money Supply Control
The state maintains strict advance monitoring and control of the money supply to prevent excessive growth.
CB Refinancing of Banks
The Central Bank refinances commercial bank operations at interest — enabling CB oversight of money circulation.
Budget-Credit Coordination
Improving interaction between credit and budget systems. Covering budget deficit through securities sales, not money printing.
Productive Sector Priority
Credit policy primarily directed toward financing the development of the economy's key sectors.
Anti-Inflation Measures
Preventing money inflation to strengthen the som's purchasing power; linking money quantity to goods and services.
Currency Stability
Ensuring stability of national currency exchange rate as essential condition for macroeconomic stability and investor confidence.
SECTION
22.5
Strengthening
National Currency
in Uzbekistan
STRENGTHENING THE NATIONAL CURRENCY
Main goal: Increase the purchasing power of the som and ensure its stability. Achieved by filling the market with competitive products and creating necessary demand.
Expand Domestic Production
Expand national production to fill the consumer goods market. Increase product quality and efficiency. As domestic products' share in total consumption grows, the som gains purchasing power.
Promote Quality Imports
Strengthening the som does NOT mean blocking imports. Quality foreign goods are also encouraged to meet population needs while maintaining price competitiveness.
Maintain Forex Reserves
The som's free convertibility to any currency depends on sufficient foreign exchange reserves — requiring enterprises to produce world-competitive goods.
Efficient Resource Use
Careful and economical use of the som, maximizing returns on production investments, and ensuring timely repayment of obtained credits.
Anti-Inflation Policy
A well-thought-out anti-inflation policy is essential. Strictly control the rate of currency depreciation and implement effective countermeasures to choose an acceptable inflation rate.
Stable Exchange Rate
Stabilizing the national currency exchange rate stabilizes import prices, which in turn affects domestic market prices. A unified exchange rate set by supply and demand is the starting condition.
ANTI-INFLATION MEASURES
Warning: Excessive money growth with insufficient goods leads to worsening inflation → crises → economic collapse, population impoverishment, and destruction of the social system.
Link Money to Goods Growth
Anti-inflation policy must tie the growth of money supply to corresponding growth in goods and services. Excess money without sufficient goods worsens inflation.
Prevent Cash Overissuance
Ensuring timely return of money put into circulation. Not granting credits to enterprises that cannot ensure production growth.
Stabilize Exchange Rate
Exchange rate stabilization is a powerful anti-inflation factor — stabilizes import prices and subsequently domestic market prices.
Expand Cashless Payments
Prioritize increasing cashless exchange volume. Facilitate easier bank service access for households and businesses. Expand plastic card and terminal infrastructure.
Presidential Decree PF-4947 (Feb 7, 2017): Improve monetary-credit policy, introduce modern market currency regulation mechanisms, ensure national currency stability.
COMPUTERIZATION OF BANKING & FINANCE
Finance, banking, and tax systems are integral components of market infrastructure where vast data naturally accumulates. Computerized, integrated systems are essential for modern governance.
1993
Cabinet Resolution No. 388
Resolution on creating a unified computer data processing system for tax committees of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
1994
Cabinet Resolution No. 146
Resolution on improving the banking system and stabilizing monetary-credit relations — computerization of banking operations.
2017
Presidential Decree PF-4947
Action Strategy for Further Development of Uzbekistan — direction 3.1: Further improve monetary-credit policy using advanced international instruments.
2019
New Tax Code Concept
Core principle: Reduce tax burden, apply simple and stable tax system to increase economic competitiveness and create favorable conditions for entrepreneurs.
Result: Market reform + disciplined monetary policy → macroeconomic stability + high growth rates + controlled inflation + favorable business environment.
KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS
Money Circulation
Continuous movement of cash and equivalent financial assets serving goods exchange and non-commodity payments.
Money System
Historically established and legally consolidated form of organizing money circulation in a country.
Inflation
Depreciation of paper currency unit connected with violations of money circulation laws.
Credit
Accumulation of idle funds in a loan fund and lending them for reproduction needs.
Interest Rate
Interest income expressed as a percentage of the loaned capital amount.
Bank Credit
Monetary loans given by banks and special credit institutions to borrowers.
Leasing
Non-monetary credit form — long-term rental with purchase option through regular payments.
Bank
A special institution serving credit relations and forming the core of the credit system.
Money Multiplier
The ratio showing how much money supply grows in the economy per unit increase in bank deposits.
Factoring
Relations of buying and reselling debt obligations of other economic entities.
MONETARY POLICY IN PRACTICE
As the economy heats up, the policy rate rises above inflation to cool growth. During recession, low rates stimulate investment.
SOM STABILITY: POLICY CONDITIONS
Free convertibility of the som to any currency depends on maintaining sufficient foreign exchange reserves and export competitiveness.
Competitive Exports
Enterprises must produce globally competitive products to generate foreign exchange earnings that support currency reserves.
Unified Exchange Rate
Setting a single exchange rate for all currency operations based on supply and demand in currency exchanges — not administrative fixing.
Cashless Expansion
Priority: expand cashless exchange volumes. Improve bank service accessibility; expand plastic card infrastructure, POS terminals, and electronic payment systems.
Prudent Credit Policy
Do not grant credits to enterprises that cannot ensure production growth. Timely repayment of credits — prevent idle money accumulation in population hands.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1
Explain the content of money circulation.
2
What factors determine the amount of money needed for circulation?
3
What are money aggregates? What elements constitute them?
4
Explain the content and types of inflation.
5
Draw and explain the graphical representations of demand-pull and supply-push inflation.
6
Explain how hyperinflation can lead to economic stagnation.
7
What makes credit necessary? State the content of the concept of credit.
8
List the main types of credit and describe their characteristics. What functions does credit perform?
9
List the functions of central and commercial banks.
10
What system of measures is currently being applied in Uzbekistan to ensure the stability of the national currency?
CHAPTER 22 — KEY TAKEAWAYS
💵
Money Has Laws
The quantity of money in circulation follows mathematical laws. Too much money (without corresponding goods) causes inflation; too little causes economic stagnation.
📊
Inflation Is Multi-Typed
Inflation can be demand-pull or cost-push, creeping (10%) to hyperinflation (200%+). Each type requires different policy responses measured through price indices.
🤝
Credit Drives Growth
Credit redistributes idle funds to productive uses, reduces circulation costs, and stimulates economic growth through 6 distinct functions. Multiple credit forms serve different needs.
🏦
Banks Are the Engine
The two-tier banking system (Central Bank + Commercial Banks) is the backbone of market economies. The Central Bank controls money supply through three key tools.
🇺🇿
Uzbekistan's Reform Path
Uzbekistan combines monetarist and fiscal policy approaches. Market reforms, disciplined credit policy, and anti-inflation measures created macroeconomic stability and SME growth.
💳
Going Cashless
Expanding cashless payments is a key strategy for strengthening the som. More cards, terminals, and electronic transfers reduces cash dependency and improves monetary control.
Chapter
22
Money-Credit System
& Banking Role in
Market Economy
Thank You
A sound monetary-credit system is the foundation upon which market economies sustain growth, manage crises, and protect citizens' purchasing power.
Topics Covered:
§22.1 — Money Circulation Laws & Aggregates
§22.2 — Inflation Types, Causes & Measurement
§22.3 — Credit: Sources, Functions & Types
§22.4 — Banking System: Central & Commercial
§22.5 — National Currency Stability Policy