_{Civil Engineering Department}

_{TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING (3150611)}

_{Stopping sight distance}

_{Prepared by}

_{Nirav P Desai}

_{Assistant Professor}

_{Civil Engineering Department}

Objectives

1. Know 5 types of sight distance and important determinants

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Important Sight Distances

1. Stopping
2. Decision
3. Passing
4. Intersection
5. Crossing RR

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Sight Distance in Design

• For safety, should provide sight distance of sufficient length so that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object in the traveled way - STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)
• Certain 2-lane roads should have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing other vehicles without risk of crash - PASSING SIGHT Distance (PSD)

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Green Book (AASHTO) Policy Question

• Sight distance assumes drivers are traveling at:
• A. The posted speed limit
• B. 10 mph above the speed limit
• C. The 85% percentile spot speed of the facility
• D. The design speed of the facility

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Design Policy - Response

• Sight distance assumes drivers are traveling at:
• A. The posted speed limit
• B. 10 mph above the speed limit
• C. The 85% percentile spot speed of the facility
• D. The design speed of the facility

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

GB Question

• Stopping sight distance is composed of two distances, what are they?

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

GB Question with response

• Stopping sight distance is composed of two distances, what are they?
• Distance traveled during perception/reaction time
• Distance required to physically brake vehicle

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Studies on Perception/Reaction Time

• 321 drivers (Johansson and Ruma): drivers expected to use brakes
• Median: 0.66 sec
• 90^th percentile: >= 1.5 sec
• Unexpected, response time increased by ~ 1 sec
• Some drivers took over 3.5 seconds to respond even under simple test condition

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

GB Question

• AASHTO GB recommends 2.5 seconds, this is adequate for conditions that are more complex than the simple conditions used in laboratory and road tests, but is not adequate for what?

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Class - develop a table to track variations in policy assumptions

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

• Required for every point along alignment (horizontal and vertical) – Design for it, or sign for lower, safe speed
• Available SSD = f(roadway alignment, objects off the alignment, object on road height
• SSD = PRD + BD (with final velocity V₂ = 0)

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Criteria for Sight Distance

• Driver eye height: for passenger vehicle’s = 3.5 ft above surface
• Height of object in roadway = 2 feet (SSD) – why?
• Height of opposing vehicle = 3.5 feet (PSD)

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Deceleration rate: AASHTO: 11.2 ft/s²

Deceleration is within capability of drivers to stay within their lane and control the vehicle when braking on wet surfaces and is comfortable for most drivers

• AASHTO represents friction as a/g which is a function of the roadway, tires, etc
• Can use when deceleration is known (usually not)

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

BD = V²

30[ (a) ± G]

^(g)

Where:

BD = braking distance (ft)

V = speed (mph)

a = deceleration rate (ft/s²)

G = grade (decimal)

g = acceleration due to gravity =32.2 ft/s²

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Braking Distance

Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake harder

a = 11.2 ft/sec² normal

a = 14.8 ft/sec² emergency, use tables from AASHTO

Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet, icy), tire, and roadway surface

Depends on weight, but some assumptions are made to arrive at a standard equation

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

SSD Equation

SSD = 1.47ut + _____u²_____

30({a/g} ± G)

​

SSD in feet

u speed in mph

t perception/reaction time (in seconds)

a assumed deceleration rate (ft/sec²)

g gravitational force (32.2 ft /sec²)

G gradient in ft/ft

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

SSD Example

Use basic assumptions to determine SSD at 60 mph on

a) 0% grade, b) 3% grade

​

SSD = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u²________

30({11.2/32.2} + 0.00)

​

SSD = 220.5 + 345.5 = 556 ft

​

(compare to table 3-1 in GB – See next slide)

​

On a +3% grade, SSD = 220 +318 = 538 ft

​

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Stopping (emergency) – SSD (Table 3-1)

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4^th Ed.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

SSD Example

Given: Available Sight distance = 430’ on a +3% grade

Find maximum speed if perception reaction time is assumed to be 2.5 seconds

​

430 feet = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u²________

30({11.2/32.2} + 0.03)

​

430 feet = 3.68u + ________u²________

30(0.378)

​

​

Solving for u, u = 52.0 mph (Set speed at 50 mph)

​

Discuss: Would this be an acceptable condition if the road is generally posted for 60 mph?

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Stopping Sight Distance Example

Consider analysis when vehicle skids across different surfaces (a/g is not equal to 0.35)

​

Or final velocity is not zero at the end of the skid, as evidenced because the vehicle sustains crushing damage until the vehicle is stopped.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Stopping Sight Distance

where:

terms are as before, except

v_{o = original velocity}

_vf = final velocity at impact

​

With assumed acceleration, using friction

S = PRD + D_b

= 1.47v_ot + v_o² - v_f²

30(f ± G)

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Stopping Sight Distance Example

Accident Reconstruction:

Average Skid Mark = 47 feet

Crush damage indicates 20 to 30 mph speed at impact

f = 0.65 (how do they know this?), level roadway, and 40 mph posted speed.

Was vehicle speeding?

​

47 feet skid represents what? BD?

​

If final speed is 30 mph …

BD = 47 = (V_i² – 30²)/30(0.65 + 0)

V_i = 42.6 mph

If final speed is 20 mph (V_i = 36.3 mph)

What if pavement changes to gravel after 47 feet and car slides

another 30 feet (f = 0.7)? What is initial speed?

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Typical values for friction

Values of friction vary widely with road surface type, age, condition. Examples:

Surface type f (or a/g)

Concrete pavement -dry 0.60 to .75

Concrete pavement – wet 0.45 to .65

Asphalt pavement 0.55 to .70

Gravel 0.40 to .70

Ice 0.05 to .20

Snow 0.30 to .60

Source: Lynn Fricke, Northwestern Univ.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Decision Sight Distance

• SSD are sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary circumstances
• May be inadequate when drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions, when information is difficult to perceive or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required
• Equations in book, use tables

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Decision Sight Distance

• When situation is unexpected or driver makes unusual maneuvers or under difficult to perceive situations
• Requires higher P/R time
• Depends on type of maneuver made and roadway setting (urban vs. rural)
• Use table 3.5 from Text, page 75

​

​

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Decision

(controlled stop, speed/path/route change) – DSD (Table 3-3)

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4^th Ed.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Passing Sight Distance

Assumptions (conservative?):

​

1. Vehicle being passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph greater than that of the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its lane

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4^th Ed.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Passing Sight Distance

D_passing = d₁ + d₂ + d₃ + d₄

​

d₁ = distance traveled during P/R time to point where vehicle just enters the left lane

​

d₁ = 1.47t₁(u – m + at₁)

2

where

t₁ = time for initial maneuver (sec)

u = average speed of passing vehicle (mph)

a = acceleration (mph/s)

m = difference between speeds of passing and passed vehicle

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Passing Sight Distance

D_passing = d₁ + d₂ + d₃ + d₄

​

d₂ = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane

​

d₂ = 1.47ut₂

where:

u = speed of passing vehicle (mph)

t₂ = time spent passing in left lane (sec)

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Passing Sight Distance

D_passing = d₁ + d₂ + d₃ + d₄

​

d₃ = clearance distance varies from 110 to 300 feet

​

d₄ = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing maneuver

d₄ usually taken as 2/3 d₂

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

PSD - observations

Would new research be of value?:

a = acceleration rates range from 1.40 to 1.5 mph/sec²

(could this element be ignored in d1?)

What % of total distance is this portion of PSD?

acceleration rates in the formula have not changed since 1954.

​

clearance interval distances, d3: apparently based on observation of driver behavior. Tabled values have not changed since 1954.

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Important Sight Distances (cont.)

4. Intersection (turning/crossing) - ISD (Chap 9) – we will come back to this
5. Crossing RR (Chap 9)
1. Stop, proceed, proceed from stop

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

• Crossing RR
• Stop, proceed, proceed from stop

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

�

_{What are the key variables?}

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Key issues in safe crossing�

Speeds

Distance from front of vehicle to driver’s eye

Distance from rail to front of vehicle

Assumptions about PR time and braking distance

Width of crossing

Distance from end of vehicle after crossing

Length of vehicle

Acceleration capability of road vehicle

​

Offset of obstruction from the road and the rail line

​

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Question for Next Class

_{Be prepared to report on the acceleration rates used in passing sight distance in 1954, with the acceleration rates for trucks accelerating from a railroad crossing in 2005}

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}

Thank You

_{Civil Engineering Department R.N.G.Patel Institute of Technology, Bardoli Mr. Nirav P Desai}