EMPOWERING INDEPENDENT NAVIGATION: APH AND PSU�
Dr. Martin Swobodzinski
Dr. Amy Parker
Elizabeth Schaller
Denise Snow
National Institute for Transportation and Communities (NITC)
This project is funded by the National Institute for Transportation and Communities, a U.S. DOT University Transportation Center.
NITC grants require “match” funds from partners in terms of time from staff. APH was a multi-year supporter of this work.
ACCESSIBLE CITIES
APH’s Leadership on Accessible Cities
Accessible Cities Partnership with PSU
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Learning Outcomes
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“Human wayfinding and navigation are key organizing activities that allow human beings to acquire knowledge about the environment and develop cognitive representations in support of such essential tasks as route planning and travel.”
Swobodzinski, M. & Parker, A.T. (2019). A Comprehensive Examination of Electronic Wayfinding Technology for Visually Impaired Travelers in an Urban Environment: Final Report. NITC-RR-1177. Portland, OR: Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC).
https://nitc.trec.pdx.edu/research/project/1177
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Multi-Year Investigation- 2018-2022
Our project was funded by two NITC grants. Across the two, the team focused on:
1) A structured literature and digital marketplace review of smartphone-based wayfinding apps and related technology
2) Focus groups with blind, deafblind, and visually-impaired participants as well as professional Orientation and Mobility instructors
3) A case study with a Deafblind participant
4) A scholarly literature review on wayfinding technologies
5) A mixed-method study with teenage and adult participants that compared wayfinding tasks using maps or wayfinding technologies
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA (UCSB) SENSE OF DIRECTION SCALE
UCSB – used in case study and mixed-method group study
It’s not important to me to know where I am.
I can usually remember a new route after I have traveled it only once.
I don’t have a very good “mental map” of my environment.
I am very good at giving directions.
I tend to think of my environment in terms of cardinal directions (N, S, E, W).
Reference: Hegarty, M. Richardson, A. E., Montello, D. R., Lovelace, K & Subbiah, I. (2002). Development of a Self-Report Measure of Environmental Spatial Ability. Intelligence, 30, 425-447.
Discussion: Implications for Educators – UCSB Scale
The journey to adulthood, college and career readiness, is complex.
Environmental literacy, comfort with technological tools, orientation and mobility, self-determination, self-advocacy are vital skills that require direct instruction and practice for students with visual impairments and deafblindness.
Facilitating opportunities and experiences requires thoughtful collaboration and partnership. Youth are a part of this partnership!
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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND FOCUS GROUPS�FOCUS GROUPS�FIRST NITC GRANT
First NITC Grant
Method for the Systematic Review:�2007 to Present
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Snippet from Categorization of Mobile Wayfinding Apps for Visually Impaired Pedestrian Travelers
Application Name | Cost | Wayfinding Support | Operating System | Additional Hardware Needed? |
Aira | High | Indoor and Outdoor | iOS and Android | Yes |
Apple Maps | Free | Outdoor | iOS | No |
Ariadne | Low | Outdoor | iOS | No |
Arianna | Free | Indoor | Both | Yes |
Swobodzinski, M. & Parker, A.T. (2019). A Comprehensive Examination of Electronic Wayfinding Technology for Visually Impaired Travelers in an Urban Environment: Final Report. NITC-RR-1177. Portland, OR: Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC).
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Synthesis from Structured Review of Apps
Our technology review revealed that many apps have one or two areas of wayfinding that they focus on and few if any address the information needs of blind, visually impaired, and deaf-blind travelers across the complete trip.
That is, 1) plan and book a trip, 2) travel to transit station, 3) ride bus/transit, 4) cross streets/intersections, 5) arrive at destination.
In addition, it is apparent that the artificial separation between indoor and outdoor travel prevails, even as it comes to conceptualizations of the complete trip.
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Qualitative Method
Focus groups:
Audio recordings and video recordings of focus groups
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Method
We used a naturalistic inquiry approach within a qualitative descriptive design (Kim, Sefcik, & Bradway, 2017).
Purposive sampling allowed us to include the perspectives of adults with visual impairments and deafblindness across two distinct but similar urban settings.
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Results from the Focus Groups
As many navigation apps have limitations, it appears that blind travelers use multiple sources as a means of navigation. Many apps were identified as being used simultaneously for different aspects of the journey (i.e., BlindSquare used for intersection navigation in combination with Apple or Google maps for wayfinding).
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Qualitative Content Analysis
Meaningful patterns for exploring a model (ongoing)
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Analysis of Apps Mentioned in Focus Groups�
O&M Specialists
Apps
BlindSquare, PDX Bus, Nearby Explorer, Apple Maps, Google Maps, Aira, Seeing AI, Soundscape, Be My Eyes, Siri, Lazarillo
Devices
Bluetooth, RFID, iPad, iPhone, Android, BrailleNote (Touch), Trekker Breeze, iBeacons, Miniguide
Assistive Software
Navigon
Blind/Visually Impaired Consumers
Apps
PDX Bus, BlindSquare, Trip Planner, Be My Eyes, Moovit, Apple Maps, Google Maps, Siri, Lyft/Uber, Soundscape
Devices
iPad, headphones, iPhone/phone
Assistive Software
Zoomtext, JAWS
Deaf-Blind Consumers
Apps
iMove, SenseNav, Transit App, Google Maps, One Bus Away, Seattle Metro Trip Planner, Google Earth, AT&T, Uber, Apple Maps, Waze. Moovit, Seeing AI
Devices
iPad, Iphone, Iphone 6, Apple watch, Braille interface, guiding robots
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Positive Themes from App Use
Three main themes emerged around the positive aspects of using wayfinding apps:
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Challenges in App Use
Negatives overwhelmingly had to do with accessing a small screen, manipulating features on the phone, dropped signals, unreliability, inability to customize features for better access, and lack of adaptability.
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Comparison of Topic Items Discussed during Focus Group Sessions: Desires
Visually Impaired/Blind | Deaf-Blind |
The killer navigation app | Integration instead of proliferation of technologies |
Alternative interfaces (spatial, non-audio) | Easy interface with braille; vibratory features |
Matched, exact information (transit, rerouting, names of stops, alarms) | Apps to translate sound information for safety (sirens/alarms) |
Seamless, real-time navigation (landmarks, POIs, distance, time) | Easy to enlarge, customize colors, and scale; control glare |
Learn routes, reduce stress | |
Coverage in rural areas | |
Empathy, compassion, shared experiences | |
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Social Aspects of Travel with Friends & Family
Some of the aspects of travel are social. Tasks can relate to providing support to travel companions or making social arrangements with companions.
I can give my friends directions, recommend restaurants near us
It makes me seem more independent with friends or family
I often compare apps with my brother
I recommend apps to my friends
When I am with my hard-of-hearing partner, I turn up the volume and let her use that feature
My friend was driving the wrong way, I could advise her
I take the lead and navigate with friends using my GPS
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CASE STUDY–TRAVELER WITH USHER SYNDROME TYPE II
Second NITC Grant
*In response to the pandemic, our recruitment was cut short, and we were only able to gather data initially on one person.
Purpose of This Study
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Case Study: Participant
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Route Descriptions and Support Tools
Route Name | Length in Steps | Number of Turns | Support Tool |
1. Smith to FMH Student Accounts | 177 | 5 | Technology |
2. Park Block to Library Café | 184 | 11 | Braille/Written/Audio Directions |
3. Lamp Post to FMH Room 100 | 192 | 10 | Tactile Map |
Note. Technology refers to the smartphone app, Nearby Explorer Online. Audio directions refer to written text accessed through a screen reader.
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Route 1: Smith to FMH Student Accounts
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Technology (Route 1 support tool)
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Print/Braille/Audio (Route 2 support tool)
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Tactile Map (Route 3 support tool)
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Convergent Parallel Approach
QUAN
data collection
QUAN data analysis
QUAN results
Compare and contrast
Interpretation QUAN + QUAL
QUAL
data collection
QUAL data analysis
QUAL results
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Data Analysis Procedure
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Quantitative Results from Travel Experiences
Type of Data | Technology | Written directions | Tactile Map |
Preview time with tool | 4:24 | 5:34 | 8:37 |
Duration of route | 17:07 | 15:57 | 9:14 |
Errors (no.) | 3 | 7 | 3 |
Duration of errors | 7:04 | 7:05 | 3:31 |
Research interventions (no.) | 9 | 3 | 3 |
Participant questions | 4 | 2 | 4 |
Note. “Participant questions” refer to questions directed at the researcher, and does not include self-directed questions.
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Pre-Route Survey
Question | Technology | Written directions | Tactile Map |
Have you ever used this type of tool before? | Yes | No | Yes |
How often do you use this type of preview tool for wayfinding already? | 2 | 1 | 1 |
Note. Surveys used a 5-point Likert scale. For the pre-route survey, “1” meant “has little to no experience,” and “5” meant “has used very often.”
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Post-Route Survey
Question | Technology | Written directions | Tactile Map |
How useful do you feel the preview was for navigating the route? | 1 | 2 | 4 |
How comfortable/confident did you feel navigating the route? | 1 | 4 | 3 |
How useful do you feel the in-route information was while navigating the route? | 1 | 5 | 5 |
How comfortable/confident were you in navigating the indoor/outdoor transition section/s of the route? | 1 | 4 | 5 |
Note. Surveys used a 5-point Likert scale. For the post-route survey, “1” meant “not at all comfortable/confident/useful,” and “5” meant “very comfortable/confident/useful.”
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Qualitative Data from Interview
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Comprehension & Interfering Information
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Comprehension & Interfering Information (cont.)
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Wayfinding Strategies
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Wayfinding Strategies (cont.)
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SCALING THE CASE STUDY
n= 30
Refinement of Method for Scaling Study
When we were able to resume in-person research, the wayfinding technology tool had significantly evolved into Goodmaps, which is based on high resolution LiDAR scanning.
When we were able to resume in-person research, we sought input from an expert traveler with vision loss who was also an O&M Specialist. They participated with the team in doing the routes and sharing insight on our approach.
The counsel that they offered was to eliminate the written directions because of how many ways they could be interpreted and because of cognitive load and fatigue.
We replicated the indoor and outdoor routes using two support tools- the tactile map or the wayfinding app.
We reached out to school personnel to recruit as well as adult service agencies.
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Inclusion of Youth and Adults
21 participants were adolescents between the age of 14 and 18 and seven were adults between the ages of 19 and 50.
Qualitative and Quantitative Focus
Describe Experiences on Routes- making meaningful connections
High social validity for the experience was noted in the comments from participants and from educators who attended with the youth participants.
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Environmental Factors
Weather
Built Environment
Natural Environment
Social Environment
Affordances in Environment
Naturalistic inquiry with participants to examine the impact of tools in complex travel conditions.
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Global Supports and Findings
Assembling mental maps through experiences and questioning.
Cognitive load remains a factor across conditions.
While speed is a performance measure in the study, it is not necessarily the most important aspect in the wayfinding experience. Participants’ confidence and confirmation where they were along the route was incredibly important.
Our preliminary analysis of the spatial abilities of the participants based on individual-level responses to the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction scale (Hagarty et al., 2002) revealed significantly lower aggregate spatial ability scores of the adolescent participants compared to the adult participants.
*more analysis is needed to control for when someone experienced visual impairment
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Questions and Opportunities
Does O&M training support greater spatial cognition for travelers?
Will O&M become obsolete?
It can help make better use of tools. Confirmatory sense during travel experiences.
Opportunities to integrate more formal measures of spatial cognition into our O&M curricula and training efforts.
Role that confidence and confirmation plays in wayfinding.
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Reflections on the Multi-Year Journey
Our study gave voice to the experience of diverse travelers who use wayfinding technologies to accomplish important life tasks. Despite the proliferation of wayfinding apps that are meant to benefit travelers, the goodness of fit of such tools remains constrained.
At the same time, there is a great desire for technologies to be better integrated, more intuitive, and more responsive to individual traveler characteristics and needs.
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Mobility Matters�Community Outreach and Interdisciplinary Engagement
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Participatory Design
Participatory designs sound simple, but this type of design involves engagement with diverse members of a community.
Engagement can be expensive in terms of the time that it takes to listen to each other.
Lack of engagement is also expensive.
DeafBlind Citizens in Action has been engaged with Portland State University in a participatory approach with transportation providers.
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Collaborations to Create Systemic Improvements
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References
Parker, A. T., Swobodzinski, M., Wright, J. D., Hansen, K., Morton, B., and Schaller, E. (2021). Wayfinding tools for people with visual impairments in real-world settings: A literature review of recent studies. Frontiers in Education – Educational Psychology, 6:723816. DOI: 10.3389/feduc.2021.723816
Swobodzinski, M., Parker, A. T., Wright, J. D., Hansen, K., & Morton, B. (2021). Seamless Wayfinding by a Deafblind Adult on an Urban College Campus: A Case Study on Wayfinding Performance, Information Preferences, and Technology Requirements. In Frontiers in Education (p. 350). Frontiers in Education 6:723098. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.723098
Parker, A. T., Swobodzinski, M., Brown-Ogilvie, T., & Beresheim-Kools, J. (2020). The Use of Wayfinding Apps by Deafblind Travelers in an Urban Environment: Insights from Focus Groups. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 5, p. 201)..https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.572641
Swobodzinski, M. & Parker, A.T. (2019). A Comprehensive Examination of Electronic Wayfinding Technology for Visually Impaired Travelers in an Urban Environment: Final Report. NITC-RR-1177. Portland, OR: Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC).
Swobodzinski, M. & Parker, A. T. (2019). Electronic Wayfinding for Visually Impaired Travelers: Limitations and Opportunities. Project Brief. NITC-RR-1177. Portland, OR: Transportation Research and Education Center (TREC).
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EMPOWERING INDEPENDENT NAVIGATION: APH AND PSU
Dr. Martin Swobodzinski
Dr. Amy Parker
Elizabeth Schaller
Denise Snow