BUILDING SURVEYING IN CONSTRUCTION

Dr Adewale Abimbola, FHEA, GMICE.

www.edulibrary.co.uk

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Aim & Objectives

Aim: Traditional Methods of Construction: Floors, Internal Walls, Doors & Windows.

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

a) Describe traditional methods of constructing floors, internal walls, doors & windows in residential housing.

b) Discuss the impact of traditional construction methods on current and future repair and remedial work.

Floors

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Main Functions of Floors

1. Physical barrier
2. Bear required loads
3. Control sound transmission
4. Reduce thermal transmittance
5. Prevent spread and penetration of fire
6. Resist impact
7. Accommodate openings and penetrations
8. Reduce deflection to a minimum
9. Support other parts of the structure

Solid Floor Construction

• Traditional used for outbuildings such as washrooms.
• Provide good stability and load-bearing capacity.
• Typically constructed with concrete slab on compacted hardcore.
• Became more popular after WWII because of restriction on imported timbers used for timber floors.
• Damp-proof membrane (DPM) were initially absent. Alternatives such as clay tiles and quarry tiles were used.
• Bitumen coating may be have been applied before laying the floor finish to prevent moisture ingress.
• Clay tiles allow the floor to breathe and any moisture to escape.

Figure 2. A concrete floor 1960s – 1990s (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Figure 1. A concrete floor 1950s (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Solid Floor Construction

Problems:

• Prone to cracking and sinking over time.
• Poor thermal insulation properties.
• Mould growth against walls at floor level.

Impact of additional loads:

• May cause further cracking or settlement.

Repair and remedial work:

• Often requires extensive excavation and replacement.
• Improved sub-base preparation.
• Use of reinforced concrete.
• Incorporation of insulation layers.

Figure 2. A concrete floor 1960s – 1990s (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Suspended Floor Construction

• Constructed from timber joists (100mm X 50mm at 400mm c/c) and floorboards.
• Popular during the Victorian era (1839-1901).
• Supported by load-bearing external/internal walls.
• Often used in older properties and some modern timber-frame buildings.
• Require adequate ventilation beneath to prevent damp issues. This is achieved by using honeycomb walls.
• The floor joists rests upon the wall plates tied onto the honeycomb walls. Slates were later used to protect the joist and prevent rising damp.

Figure 3. A typical suspended timber floor (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Figure 4. The 1920s improvement to suspended timber floor (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Suspended Floor Construction

Problems:

• Vulnerability to damp and wood-boring insects.
• Potential for squeaking and movement.
• Limited span capabilities.

Impact of additional loads:

• May cause excessive deflection or failure of joists.

Repair and remedial work:

• Can be complex, often requiring lifting of floorboards.

Figure 4. The 1920s improvement to suspended timber floor (University of the West of England, 2009a)

Solutions:

• Use of treated timber and improved ventilation.
• Installation of additional support or steel reinforcement.

Intermediate Floor Construction

• Generally refer to floors between ground and upper levels.
• Traditionally constructed using timber joists.
• Supported by the internal walls of the building.
• Herringbone strutting provided lateral restraint (Fig. 5). Recommended at 1.8 m intervals.
• Intermediate floors span the shortest distance.

Figure 5. An intermediate floor (DukeLewis87, 2013).

Figure 6. Late 19^th century upper floor construction (University of the West of England, 2009b)

Intermediate Floor Construction

Problems:

• Poor sound insulation between storeys.
• Potential for vibration and movement.
• Difficulties in routing services.

Impact of additional loads:

• May cause sagging or failure of joists.

Repair and remedial work:

• Often requires access from above and below, disrupting multiple rooms.

Solutions:

• Use of engineered joists for greater strength and span.
• Incorporation of sound insulation materials.
• Design for easy access to services.

Figure 5. Figure 1. An intermediate floor (DukeLewis87, 2013).

Figure 7. 1930s upper floor construction (University of the West of England, 2009b)

Group-assessment Task

Cold Floors & Walls in an Old House ~ What Can Nick Do?

Review the video provided and compile a list of potential remedial works necessary to enhance the thermal properties of the suspended timber floor and wall.

For each suggestion, briefly explain how it would contribute to improving thermal efficiency.

Consider aspects such as insulation, air tightness, and moisture control in your recommendations.

Self-assessment Task

1. Describe ANY TWO traditional methods of floor construction used for residential housing.
2. Discuss their impact on current and future repair and remedial work.

Hint: How will the types be affected by additional load and how it can be repaired or remediated?

Internal Walls

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1. Strength
2. Stability
3. Weather exclusion
4. Thermal Insulation
5. Sound Insulation
6. Durability
7. Fire resistance
8. Appearance

Main Performance Requirements of Internal Walls

Traditional Internal Wall Construction

Solid Internal Walls:

• Typically constructed using brick or blockwork.

• Often used for load-bearing walls in older properties.

• No major requirement for temperature efficiency as required by external walls.

• Generally thicker than modern partition walls.

• Older lime plasters used on the walls detach easily as they are not long-lasting.

• Offered high thermal mass, helping to regulate indoor temperatures.

• Mould can develop if the DPC is flawed.

Figure 8. Internal walls (H+H UK Limited, 2022)

Traditional Solid Internal Wall Construction

Problems encountered:

• Prone to damp issues, especially rising damp
• Can be structurally weak if mortar deteriorates.

Impact of additional loads:

• May cause further stress on already weakened mortar joints.
• Could lead to cracking or structural instability.

Repair and remedial work:

• Often requires extensive repointing or partial rebuilding.

Figure 8. Internal walls (H+H UK Limited, 2022)

Solutions:

• Careful repointing with appropriate mortar.
• Use of breathable materials for any retrofitted insulation.
• Installation of chemical damp-proof courses where appropriate.

Traditional Internal Wall Construction

Hollow Internal Walls:

• Commonly used in residential construction since the 19th century.

• Consisted of vertical timber studs fixed between floor and ceiling.

• Typically used 100 x 50mm softwood timbers for studs.

• Studs usually spaced at 400mm or 600mm centres.

• Often incorporated a timber sole plate at the bottom and head plate at the top.

• Traditionally infilled with lath and plaster for wall surfaces.

• Vulnerable to damp and wood-boring insects if inadequately treated or ventilated.

Figure 9. Lath and plaster for interior wall finish (Designing Buildings Ltd., 2022)

• Traditionally infilled with lath and plaster for wall surfaces

• Later versions used plasterboard sheets nailed directly to the studs

Traditional Hollow Internal Wall Construction

Problems encountered:

• Susceptible to movement and cracking if not properly constructed.
• Vulnerable to damp and wood-boring insects if inadequately treated.
• Limited sound insulation compared to solid walls.
• Difficulty in hanging heavy items between studs.

Impact of additional loads:

• May cause deflection or sagging if not designed for extra weight.
• Risk of overloading individual studs, leading to structural issues.
• Potential for increased movement and cracking under stress.

Repair and remedial work:

• Relatively easy to access for repairs and modifications.
• Can be challenging to retrofit with additional insulation.

Figure 10. Dry lining of walls (IBB.uk, 2023)

Solutions:

• Installation of loadbearing wall boards for easier fixture mounting
• Application of vapour barriers and proper ventilation to prevent damp issues
• Use of fire-resistant plasterboard to improve fire safety

Self-assessment Task

1. Describe a traditional method of internal wall construction used for residential housing.
2. Discuss its impact on current and future repair and remedial work.

Hint: How will the internal wall type be affected by additional load and how it can be repaired or remediated?

Doors and Windows

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1. Access and egress
2. Resistance to weather
3. Security
4. Heat control
5. Noise control
6. Privacy
7. Fire resistance
8. Stability

Main Performance Requirements of Doors

Main Performance Requirements of Windows

1. Ventilation
2. Security
3. Thermal transmission
4. Sound resistance
5. Moisture penetration resistance
6. Privacy
7. Fire resistance

Traditional Doors

Timber Doors:

• Typically constructed using solid timber frames and panels.

• Mortise and tenon joints commonly used for frame assembly.

• Panels often made of solid wood or plywood.

• Hardwood are more durable for the UK climate as they do not rot as fast as softwood.

• Traditional designs included ledged and braced doors for barns and outbuildings.

• Panelled doors with raised or flat panels popular for residential use.

• Hand-carved decorative elements sometimes incorporated.

• Often finished with oil-based paints or varnishes.

Figure 11. Dry lining of walls (Barton, 2019)

Traditional Doors

Metal Doors:

• Often made from wrought iron (prevalent pre-16^th century) or mild steel (late 20^th century) for strength and durability.

• Typically constructed with a steel frame and panel design.

• Panels could be solid metal or incorporate glass panes.

• Wrought iron doors often featured decorative scrollwork or patterns.

• Industrial-style doors commonly used galvanised steel for corrosion resistance.

• Door frames usually fixed directly into masonry openings.

Figure 12. Antique Industrial Iron Door, 18th Century (Pamono GmbH, 2024)

Traditional Windows

Timber Windows:

• Sash windows prevalent in Georgian and Victorian architecture.

• Constructed with timber frames and sashes.

• Utilised weights and pulleys for vertical sliding mechanism.

• Casement windows common in earlier periods and rural buildings.

• Often featured leaded lights or small panes held by glazing bars.

• Timber mullions and transoms used to divide larger window openings.

• Window frames typically secured into masonry using wooden pegs or metal fixings.

Figure 13. Wooden windows (Eezy LLC, 2024)

Traditional Windows

Metal Windows:

• Commonly made from steel or cast iron in industrial and commercial buildings.

• Casement windows with side-hung opening lights were popular.

• Steel windows often featured slim profiles for maximum glass area.

• Leaded lights sometimes incorporated for decorative effect.

• Metal glazing bars used to divide larger window openings into smaller panes.

• Putty glazing traditionally used to secure glass within metal frames.

Figure 14. Dry lining of walls (Bock, 2020)

Traditional Timber Doors & Windows

Problems encountered:

• Susceptibility to rot, especially at joints and bottom rails.
• Warping and swelling due to moisture ingress.
• Poor thermal insulation compared to modern standards.
• Vulnerability to wood-boring insects.

Impact of additional loads:

• Potential sagging of door frames under heavy doors.
• Stress on window frames from larger glass panes.

Repair and remedial work:

• Often requires specialist carpentry skills.
• Difficulty in sourcing matching timber for repairs.
• Challenges in improving energy efficiency without altering appearance.

Traditional Metal Doors & Windows

Problems encountered:

• Corrosion of metal components, particularly in coastal areas.
• Fatigue in moving parts like hinges and window mechanisms.
• Galvanic corrosion where dissimilar metals meet.

Impact of additional loads:

• Stress on hinges and fixings from heavier modern glass.
• Potential failure of original fixings under increased weight.

Repair and remedial work:

• Difficulty in matching original metalwork designs.
• Balancing preservation with modern security requirements.

Repair and remedial work:

• Often requires specialist carpentry skills.
• Difficulty in sourcing matching timber for repairs.
• Challenges in improving energy efficiency without altering appearance.

Group-assessment Task

You are a building surveyor approached by a young couple looking to purchase their first home. The property in question is a semi-detached house built in 1935, featuring solid brick walls and a slate roof. The couple has requested a detailed report on the condition of the property's exterior, with a particular focus on the potential costs of future maintenance and repairs. They intend to use this information to negotiate the asking price with the seller.

After conducting a thorough inspection of the property, you have observed the following:

• There are signs of dampness on the internal walls of the ground floor rooms.
• The wooden window frames show signs of rot and need replacement.
• The internal doors are original and show signs of wear and minor damage.
• The ground floor appears to have a solid concrete floor, while upper floors are of suspended timber construction.

How would you advise the clients regarding:

1. The urgency of necessary repairs?
2. Potential long-term maintenance issues associated with this type of construction?
3. The impact of these issues on the property's value and the couple's negotiation strategy?
4. Any further investigations or specialist surveys that might be required?
5. The energy efficiency of the property and potential improvements?

Prepare a concise report outlining your findings and recommendations, considering the clients' position as first-time buyers and their need for clear, actionable advice.

Self-assessment Task

1. Describe a traditional method of doors and windows construction used for residential housing.
2. Discuss their impact on current and future repair and remedial work.

Hint: How will they be affected by additional load and how they can be repaired or remediated?

Reference/Bibliography

Barton, T. (2019) Early timber doors. Available at: https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/early-timber-doors/early-timber-doors.htm (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

Bock, G. H. (2020) Making sense of metal windows in historic buildings. Available at: https://www.traditionalbuilding.com/product-report/metal-windows-in-historic-buildings (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

Designing Buildings Ltd. (2022) Lath and plaster. Available at: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Lath_and_plaster (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

DuleLewis87 (2013) Carpentry. Available at: https://www.diychatroom.com/threads/length-for-quick-question.183139/ (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

Eezy LLC (2024) Aged wooden windows. Available at: https://www.vecteezy.com/photo/28216974-aged-wooden-windows (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

H+H UK Limited (2022) Internal walls: partition walls. Available at: https://www.hhcelcon.co.uk/products-applications/applications/internal-walls-partition-walls (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

IBB.uk (2023) Dry Lining Guide - walls and ceilings. Available at: https://www.ibb.uk/advice/post/dry-lining-guide-walls-and-ceilings (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

Pamono GmbH (2024) Antique industrial iron door, 18th century. Available at: https://www.pamono.co.uk/antique-industrial-iron-door-18th-century (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

Pearson (2017) BTEC national construction student book. London: Pearson.

University of the West of England (2009a) Ground floors. Available at: https://fet.uwe.ac.uk/conweb/house_ages/elements/section3.htm (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

University of the West of England (2009b) Upper floors. Available at: https://fet.uwe.ac.uk/conweb/house_ages/elements/section4.htm (Accessed: 21 September 2024)

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