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Immigration at the Turn of the 20th Century

Between 1880 and 1920, more than 23 million immigrants came to the United States.
The majority of the immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe, including Italy, Greece, Poland, Russia, and the Balkan states. Asian immigrants also came to the United States during this period, including Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos.
Immigrants faced significant challenges upon arrival, including discrimination, low wages, and poor living conditions.
Immigration laws were introduced in the United States during this period, including the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which prohibited Chinese immigrants from coming to the United States, and the Immigration Act of 1917, which introduced a literacy test for immigrants.
The Immigration Act of 1924, further restricted immigration, particularly from southern and eastern Europe.

Are Immigrants good for America?

“Welcome to the Land of Freedom,” Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1887

“Very Pertinent Questions”, Medical Review of Reviews, Wall Street, 1915

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Science/Technology Addresses Urban Problems

PROBLEM 1: Lack of space in cities (Why is this a problem?):

Skyscrapers: 10-20 story buildings with a steel reinforced structure. Can be residential or commercial.

PROBLEM 2: Inadequate transportation:

Mass transit, including subways, streetcars and electric railways to connect cities and towns.

PROBLEM 3: Inefficient energy:

Rise of electricity: electricity replaces gas/kerosene as the local/household energy of choice:
Electricity is safer, easier to transport and more efficient than burning oil.

PROBLEM 4: Poor Communication:

The telephone allows for instant, direct communication across distance, ideal for businesses.

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The Birth of Modern Architecture

Technology, such as the advent of the use of Steel, allow cities to grow UPWARDS and OUTWARDS.
EXAMPLES OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE:

W. Le Baron’s Jenney’s 10 Story “Home Insurance Building” in Chicago 1885 is the first Steel Framed Structure in America.
Louis Sullivan – Bayard-Condict Building in Manhattan 1913- The first modern “Office Building.”
John Roebling and the Brooklyn Bridge :

One of the first “Suspension Bridges”- held up by steel cable. Less expensive, safer and more efficient than previous bridges.
Allows traffic between Manhattan and Brooklyn for the first time (needed a ferry prior to this)

Home Insurance Building, Chicago, 1885

The Bayard-Condict Building, Manhattan, 1913.

The Promenade, Brooklyn Bridge, ca. 1890.

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Electric Transportation and Railways

Electric motors become more and more efficient and effective in the early 1900s.
With the rapid expansion of cities, horses and gas/coal vehicles were not practical (Why?).
Local governments invested in electric transportation as a way to improve their cities and make them more attractive to businesses and investors.
Power plants become more widespread, allowing for electric lines to be installed all around the country. By 1910, there are 33,000 electric streetcars in operation in the United States.
In major cities, “Elevated Trains” and “Subways” are designed to minimize the space taken up by railways.
Cities begin to adopt “Urban Planning” and Frederick Law Olmsted, one of the first “Landscape Architects,” begins to design urban parks, such as Central Park in New York City.

The Third Avenue Line, running along the Bowery, New York City, 1904

City Hall station of the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, NYC, 1904.

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Introduction of the Automobile

Late 1800s: Internal combustion engines are developed by several inventors in the U.S. and Europe.
1885: Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz develop the first practical gasoline-powered automobile.
Early 1900s: The Ford Motor Company is founded by Henry Ford, who introduces the Model T in 1908, making automobiles more affordable for the average person. INNOVATION: The “Assembly Line”
Early 1900s: Automakers begin to experiment with new technologies, such as electric and hybrid engines.
1920s: The automobile becomes a symbol of the modern era and a status symbol for the wealthy.

1886- Carl Benz patents a three-wheeled vehicle with gas engine. Seen as the birth of the automobile revolution.

Actor Gary Cooper with his 1931 Duesenberg.

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The Birth of Air Travel

1903: Orville and Wilbur Wright are the first to achieve sustained, controlled flight in a powered airplane.
1911: First use of air to transport and deliver mail. By 1918, the USPS has a fleet of airplanes for mail transport.
1910: “Barnstorming” becomes a popular recreational activity across the country. Pilots would perform trick maneuvers and stunts, including loops, rolls, and spins, as well as wing-walking and parachute jumping. This was VERY dangerous and pilots and stuntmen were often killed.
1914: The 1st airline company is founded in America.
1920s: Flying “firsts” are very popular, making pilots into instant celebrities.

Wright Bros. at Kitty Hawk, 1903

Lillian Boyer, Early Wingwalker, Minnesota State Fair, 1923.

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A Revolution in Printing

Advances in paper and printing spur the publication of newspapers, books, and magazines.
Linotype machine streamlines typesetting processes- an operator types a letter and it is automatically placed onto a “composite stick” for printing.
Offset Printing allows for color printing for the first time.
Halftone printing allows for dots to be used to indicate shade and highlights in images.
Lithography (printing from multiple large inked plates) allows for creation of large, colorful posters.
Screen Printing (exactly the same as nowadays) allows for printing on fabric, glass, etc.

Early Linotype Machine, 1937.

Chromolithography Poster, 1909.

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The Camera

George Eastman revolutionized photography by introducing paper-based film which did not have to be immediately developed
This meant that photographers could send their film into the factory rather that process it in a portable darkroom in the field
The Kodak Camera: Customers took photographs and then sent the entire camera into the factory where the pictures would be processed and a new camera (already loaded with film) would be sent back to them.
The Art of Photojournalism is created (remember Hine?)- documentation of the world and its events on film. This became one of the few careers that became immediately acceptable for women.

Early Kodak Camera Ad, 1889,

Migrant Mother, alternate view, Dorothea Lange, 1936.

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Early Female Photojournalists

Gerca Taro: The first woman war photographer, photographs the Spanish Civil War and is the first woman photographer to die in the field, when the car she was riding on was hit by a tank.

Dorothea Lange: Documented the struggles of American workers and farmers during the Great Depression, helping to shape public perception of the era and the need for social and economic reform.

Margaret Bourke-White: American photojournalist whose photographs of World War II, the Great Depression, buildings and architecture helped to shape the modern photojournalism.

Helen Levitt: American photographer who photographed street life in New York City in the 1930s and 1940s, one of the developers of street photography as an art form.

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The Work of Gerca Taro

“Loyalist Militiaman at the Moment of Death” Described by historians as one of the most important war photographs of all time, was supposedly taken in the Spanish Civil War by Gerca Taro’s partner, Robert Capa. It was published around the world. Modern evidence indicates that it was taken by Taro, not Capa.

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The Work of Dorothea Lange

“Migrant Mother” Taken by Lange in California at the height of the Depression. It is recognized as one of the most famous photographs of all time and is the iconic photo of the Depression. It was published around the world. After publication, 20,000 pounds of food were sent to this area to help feed the starving workers. Dorothea Lange was not credited in any of the published versions of this photograph at the time.

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The Work of Margaret Bourke-White

“American Way” Taken by Bourke-White in Cleveland in 1937 at the height of the Depression. It is seen as one of the greatest photographs of all time and one of the iconic images of the Depression, showing the despair of the poor, working class, juxtaposed with the bright, optimistic image on the wall behind the workers.

Bourke-White was the first photographer to attempt “Aerial Photography” and flew on bombing runs during WWII. She also photographed the liberation of concentration camps in Germany and was one of the only photographers allowed to ever interview Ghandi. She is credited with being the creator of the very first Photo Essay, "You Have Seen Their Faces," which documents poverty in the South in the 1930s.

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The Work of Helen Levitt

“New York, 1940”- Taken by Levitt in her neighborhood in New York City. The photo shows a boy playing with a gun. It is unknown whether or not the gun was real, but is a document of early issues of violence in society. Levitt’s photographs were taken discreetly, often without the knowledge of the subject. Here work is seen as THE birth of the artform known as STREET PHOTOGRAPHY.

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Education and Culture

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Expanding Public Education

In 1900, only 50 percent of children in the US attended public school for an average of FOUR years. By 1930, this number had increased to 90 percent and EIGHT years.
States try to improve and expand public education to produce good citizens and skilled workers. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION?
Most states passed laws requiring 12-16 weeks of attendance for 8-14 year-olds by the 1920s.
Progressive Education Movement: Led by John Dewey- emphasizes experiential learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving, and it sought to make education more relevant to the needs of students and society.

Public “School Bus” 1923

Children aged K-8th were often in the same school classroom, 1928.

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Development of the “High School”

In 1900, only a small percentage of students actually graduated from High School. A high school diploma was a major accomplishment, usually reserved only for the richest of families. COULD YOU PASS AN 8TH GRADE FINAL EXAM FROM 1912?
Most careers did NOT require a high school education at that time.
High schools begin to emerge as industrial work demanded more educated workers
Curriculum included: Science, Civics, Home Ec., History, Literature, and Math
Vocational courses were offered:

Boys: drafting, carpentry, and mechanics
Girls: secretarial and bookkeeping skills

Greeley High School, Class of 1900.

Ault High School, circa 1935.

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Racial Discrimination in Education

Discriminatory educational policies deny most African Americans (and Mexican Americans) equal educational opportunities
School attendance in 1910:

64% of white students
34% of black students

Fewer than 1% of black teenagers attended high school
2/3 of the 1% attended private schools.
“Black Public Schools” under Jim Crow Laws were underfunded, with few educational resources and no real curriculum.
For blacks that managed to graduate high school, no white colleges would admit them, forcing students to attend “Black Colleges.”

Tuskegee University, 1920

Black School Children, Tent City near Shawneetown, Illinois. 1920s,

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Education for Immigrants

Public schools and employers attempt to “Americanize” immigrants.
Immigrant children were forced to learn English – often being forbidden to use their native languages.
Often immigrants were subjected to mandatory readings from the King James version of the Bible.
Adult immigrants were forced to attend night schools to learn English and to qualify for citizenship.
Henry Ford of the Ford Car Company had a “Sociology Department,” and sent case workers into immigrant employee homes to teach them the “right (American) way to live.”

Does any of this violate the Establishment Clause of the 1st Amendment: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.”

Immigrant Children at Ellis Island, 1913

Immigrant students at a “Soup School” in New York City, 1917.

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Native American “Assimilation”

From 1880 to 1920: Education of Native American students was aimed at assimilating Native American students into American culture.
Boarding Schools: Native American children were taken from their families and forced to learn English, Christianity, and other aspects of American culture.
Forced Assimilation: The goal of these boarding schools was to assimilate Native American students into American culture and to erase their Native identities and cultures.
Resistance and Rebellion: Students and communities often resisted, but were harshly punished or even killed for refusing to participate in the assimilation programs.
It is estimated that thousands of Native American children died while attending these schools, often as a result of poor living conditions, inadequate nutrition, disease, neglect and abuse.

Pupils at Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Pennsylvania, c. 1900

Group of boys in training as tailors at Mt. Pleasant Indian School, 1904

Is “Forced Assimilation” a form of genocide?

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The Expansion of Higher Education

Increased Access: The era from 1900-1920s saw a significant expansion in access to higher education, with more students than ever before attending colleges and universities, mostly from middle and upper classes. There is an increasing in scholarships and financial aid, as well as to the growth of public universities.
Professionalization of Education: Growing emphasis on the professionalization of education, with new programs and departments in fields like business, law, engineering, and education.
Research and Innovation: Great increase in research and innovation in higher education.
Women's Education: The early 1900s also saw significant changes in women's education, with more opportunities than ever before for women to attend college and pursue advanced degrees. However, women still faced significant barriers and discrimination in higher education and employment during this time.

Graduating class of 1896- Storrs Agricultural College, CT, later part of UConn

Women from the Graduating class of 1910- UC- San Francisco

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Higher Education for Black Americans

Starting in 1860-1870, African Americans begin to establish “Black Colleges” to overcome their exclusion from most white schools.
All black schools opened with the original intention to educate merchants, ministers, physicians, dentists, and teachers.
Financial support to establish many of these colleges came from the Freedmen's Bureau, the American Missionary Association and donations from religious organizations.
Examples:

Atlanta University in Georgia (1865)
Fisk University in Tennessee (1866)
Howard University in Washington D.C. (1867)
Tuskegee University in Alabama (1881)

Struggles of Black Colleges: Difficulty finding qualified staff, limited resources, tended to offer more vocational programs than “higher education.”

The faculty of Morris Brown College, an all black school, ca. 1900.

1905 Physics Class at Cheyney University (Founded as “The Institute For Colored Youth.”)

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Education Influences Culture

The expansion of education broadens Americans’ cultural horizons – more content, information and culture is available to all people. Proliferation of Cultural Institutions, such as Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums
Literature: The growth of education and literacy led to a flourishing of American literature in the early 1900s, with writers like Mark Twain, Jack London, etc.
Art: The early 1900s saw significant innovation and experimentation in American art, with movements like Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Cubism gaining popularity.
Music: The growth of education and access to musical training led to a flourishing of American music in the early 1900s, with popular styles like jazz and blues emerging.
Social Movements: The increase in education also played a key role in fueling social movements like women's suffrage, civil rights, and labor rights, as educated activists and leaders emerged and were able to organize and mobilize more effectively.

First Edition, Jack London, “Call of the Wild” 1903.

The Buddy Bolden Band, 1907, one of the earliest “Jazz” musicians.

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Segregation

and

Discrimination

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Race Relations in early 1900s America

Jim Crow Laws in the aftermath of Plessy v. Ferguson had developed separate hospitals, schools, parks, beaches, transportation systems, restaurants – everything.
Jim Crow extended beyond laws and included a racial etiquette:

FORCED DEFERENCE: The social expectation that Black people had to show extreme subservience and deference to white people in all aspects of life. This included bowing, stepping off the sidewalk to let white people pass, using "ma'am" and "sir" when addressing white people.
Examples: A black person couldn’t shake hands with a white person, blacks had to take off their hat to whites, blacks had to yield to whites on the sidewalk, blacks were not allowed to make eye contact with whites, especially women.
Black people who failed to show sufficient deference to white people risked being subject to verbal and physical abuse, including violence from white people (including lynching) and punishment by law enforcement.

"On the main street of Wendell, North Carolina." A black man steps out of the way of a white woman, November 1939.

A sign in Detroit, calling for continued segregation, 1940.

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De facto vs. De jure Segregation

De facto segregation: Segregation that occurs naturally or as a result of societal norms and patterns of behavior, rather than as a result of laws or government policies. It arises from factors such as residential segregation, economic inequality, and social factors. It is not legally mandated, but rather a result of other societal factors.
De jure segregation: Segregation that is mandated by law or government policy. It is segregation that is enforced through laws, regulations, and policies that are officially sanctioned by the government. For example, during the Jim Crow era in the United States, laws were put in place that required segregation in public places like schools, parks, and restaurants. This was de jure segregation because it was enforced through laws and government policies.

WHICH FORM OF SEGREGATION IS “WORSE?”

Forms of White Address for Blacks, 1948.

At the bus station in Durham, North Carolina, 1940.

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The Great Migration

The Great Migration is a mass movement of blacks from the South to Northern cities in the 20th Century.
Causes: The Great Migration was primarily driven by economic factors, such as the availability of industrial jobs in the North and Midwest, and the decline of the agricultural economy in the South. Additionally, racial violence and segregation in the South pushed many African Americans to seek a better life elsewhere.
Timeline: The Great Migration occurred in several waves, with the largest taking place between 1910 and 1930.
Demographics: It is estimated that between 6 and 7 million African Americans migrated during the Great Migration. The majority of migrants were young and male, and many were from rural areas in the South.
Impact on Cities: The Great Migration had a significant impact on the demographics of cities in the North, Midwest, and West. African Americans settled in large numbers in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, and New York.

HOW IS THIS “MIGRATION” THOUGHT OF IN THE NORTH?

An African-American family leaves Florida for the North, 1932

African American refugees are vaccinated for typhoid at Camp Louisiana in Mississippi before heading north, 1937.

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Redlining in America: 1920-1968

REDLINING: Redlining is a discriminatory practice that involves denying loans, insurance, or other financial services to people based on their race or the racial composition of their neighborhood.

The practice of redlining began in the 1920s when the federal government created maps of cities and marked neighborhoods with predominantly African American or immigrant populations as high-risk areas for lending. These maps were used by banks to determine who to lend money to.
Redlining had a significant impact on African American communities, as they were often confined to these high-risk neighborhoods and denied access to credit.
As property taxes fund local schools, these neighborhoods quickly had very poor schools and educational opportunities.
Because the purchase of a home is the first step for a family to begin establishing WEALTH, this was denied to blacks and minorities all around the country. Modern minority families have 10 percent of the established wealth of modern white families.
Redlining also contributed to the phenomenon of "white flight," where white residents fled to the suburbs, leaving behind deteriorating inner-city neighborhoods.

1938 map of Denver, Colorado, showing “redlined districts.” This is an interactive map.

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Voting and Black America: 1900-1960

Poll Taxes: Poll taxes were used to disenfranchise Black Americans by requiring them to pay a fee in order to vote. Since many Black Americans were poor, they were unable to pay the tax and therefore unable to vote. In addition, Poll Taxes were cumulative, you had to pay ALL years worth of poll taxes to vote, not just the current year’s taxes.
Literacy Tests: Literacy tests were used to disenfranchise Black Americans by requiring them to pass a reading and writing test in order to vote. These tests were often designed to be extremely difficult and were used to prevent Black Americans from exercising their right to vote.
Intimidation: Intimidation was used to disenfranchise Black Americans by using violence and threats to prevent them from voting. This included tactics such as lynching, beatings, and arson.
Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering was used to disenfranchise Black Americans by manipulating voting districts in order to dilute their voting power. This was done by creating districts that had a majority of white voters, which made it more difficult for Black Americans to elect candidates of their choice.

Disenfranchisement through the legal system: The legal system was used to disenfranchise Black Americans through practices such as denying them access to the courts, subjecting them to discriminatory sentencing, and denying them access to legal representation.

Economic disenfranchisement: Black Americans were also disenfranchised economically through practices such as redlining, which prevented them from obtaining mortgages and loans, and discrimination in hiring practices.

WHICH FORM OF SEGREGATION IS “WORSE?”

Whites paying Poll Taxes, Tarrant County, TX, 1947.

Black voters go to the polls in South Carolina, for the first time since the Reconstruction era, after the Supreme Court ruled they could not be deprived of the right to vote, Aug. 11, 1948.

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Gerrymandering: How to Steal Votes, almost legally

Gerrymandering is the practice of manipulating the boundaries of an electoral district to give one political party an advantage over another. This is typically done by redrawing the district lines in a way that concentrates the opposing party's voters into as few districts as possible, while spreading out the party's own voters into as many districts as possible.

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Violence and the Jim Crow Era

Lynching: Lynching was a common form of violence against Black Americans during this period. Lynchings were extrajudicial killings carried out by mobs, often in response to alleged crimes or perceived slights. Many lynchings were racially motivated, and Black Americans were the primary targets.
Race Riots: Race riots were another form of violence against Black Americans during this period. These riots were often sparked by tensions between Black and white residents in urban areas. The riots were characterized by mass violence, including lynching, burning of homes and businesses, and other acts of destruction.
Between 1885 and 1920, more than 2,500 African-American men and women were shot, burned or hanged in the South.

Newspaper Headline, Tampa Bay Daily Times, 1934

3 Black men, accused of raping a white woman, are lynched in the Courthouse yard in Marion, IN, 1930. The alleged victim later admits that she was never raped.

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Discrimination in the West

Mexicans and Chinese fall victim to discrimination in the Western United States.
Mexicans:

The first to occupy most of the West (the Southwest was part of Mexico until the 1840s.)
New Mexico: Relatively peaceful co-existence between Americans, Native Americans and Mexicans:

Spanish-language newspapers helped to preserve Mexican culture and traditions. There were also efforts to promote education and literacy among Hispanic populations, as well as to support the rights of workers and farmers.

Mexicans elsewhere faced the same discrimination as Blacks in the West: Intimidation, Sunset Laws, Disenfranchisement.

Mexican immigrants cutting weeds along the side of a road outside of Chicago in 1917.

Undated Sign, Dimmitt, TX, likely 1930s. Mexicans faced what were known as “Juan Crow” laws throughout the West.

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Discrimination in the West: The Chinese

In the mid-19th century, Chinese immigrants came to the United States by opportunities to work in mining, agriculture, and other industries.
Chinese immigrants faced significant prejudice and discrimination from white Americans, who viewed them as a threat to their economic and social status.
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882: Banned Chinese immigration for 10 years and prohibited Chinese from becoming naturalized citizens, further institutionalized discrimination against Chinese immigrants.
Despite these challenges, Chinese immigrants established thriving communities and made important contributions to American society. Chinese workers played a significant role in building the transcontinental railroad, and Chinese merchants and entrepreneurs established businesses and developed trade networks.

However, Chinese immigrants continued to face discrimination and violence, including the 1885 Rock Springs Massacre in Wyoming, where white miners attacked and killed Chinese workers, and the 1871 Los Angeles Chinatown Massacre, where a mob of white residents attacked and killed Chinese residents.

Chin Fook Hing: Chinese importer in Seattle, 1909.

Ging Cui, Wong Fook, and Lee Shao, three of the eight Chinese workers who put the last rail in place on the Transcontinental Railroad, 1867.

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Violence in the West: The Chinese

Chinese immigrants continued to face discrimination and violence, such as the 1885 Rock Springs Massacre in Wyoming

On September 2, 1885, a dispute erupted between white and Chinese miners over working conditions and wages. The dispute quickly turned violent, and a group of white miners attacked Chinese workers and burned down their homes and businesses.
The violence continued for several hours, with the white miners targeting Chinese workers and their families, killing at least 28 Chinese miners and injuring many others. The Chinese workers fled the town and were forced to seek refuge in nearby communities.

Rock Springs' No. 2 mine, no date. Wyoming Tales and Trails photo.

Racist caricature of a Chinese worker wearing a queue an 1899 editorial cartoon titled “The Yellow Terror In All His Glory”

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Discrimination against Native Americans

Reservation System: The U.S. government continued to confine Native American tribes to reservations, often on lands that were unsuitable for farming or resource development. This led to poverty and dependency on government rations.
The Dawes Act (1887): Federal Law aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing reservation lands into individual plots for tribal members, unclaimed land was sold. The act resulted in the loss of millions of acres of communal land. Native Americans who accepted individual land allotments were granted U.S. citizenship, but at the cost of their tribal identity, community bonds and children, who were sent to Boarding Schools.
Boarding Schools: Native American children were often forcibly removed from their families and sent to boarding schools. These institutions sought to assimilate Native American youth by suppressing their language, culture, and traditions. Students were punished for speaking their native languages and were made to adopt Euro-American customs.

A Navajo woman walks towards her hogan on the Navajo Indian Reservation between Chinle and Ganado, Ariz. GUESS THE DATE OF THIS PHOTO!

A group of Native American Flatheads (Salish), identified as the Finleys, pose on the Flathead Reservation in western Montana. Early 1900s.

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Discrimination Against Native Americans, cont.

Cultural Suppression: Traditional ceremonies and religious beliefs were banned by the U.S. government. The Indian Religious Crimes Code (1883) made it illegal to participate in traditional ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and the Ghost Dance (This dance foretold a future where the white man was banished and Native Americans’ lands were restored.) This leads to the Massacre at Wounded Knee.
Land and Resource Exploitation: The U.S. government and private entities continued steal Native American lands, seeking to exploit resources such as timber, minerals, and oil. Treaties were often disregarded, and sacred sites were desecrated.
Citizenship and Voting Rights: Most Native Americans were denied the right to vote due to state governments’ discriminatory practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes.
Racism and Stereotyping: Native Americans faced widespread racism and stereotyping during this period. They were often portrayed as "savages" in popular culture, and this perception led to further discrimination in employment, education, and social opportunities.

“Burial of the Dead at Wounded Knee,” December 29, 1890.

“The Ghost Dance, Pine Ridge South Dakota,” Painting, Frederick Remington, 1890.

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The Dawn of Mass Culture

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American Leisure

Outdoor Recreational Activities and Venues become very popular around the country:
Playgrounds, ball fields, and amusement parks help provide vital outdoor activities to city dwellers.

Amusement Parks and Boardwalks: The early 1900s witnessed the growth of amusement parks and boardwalks, offering various forms of entertainment, including rides, games, and attractions.
Baseball: As America's pastime, baseball continued to grow in popularity during the early 1900s. The establishment of the World Series in 1903 further increased interest in the sport.

Higher Culture becomes very popular:

Museums and libraries become fashionable places to be seen, thanks to the philanthropy of Robber Barons, such as Andrew Carnegie.
Symphonies and Orchestras give many Americans their first chance to enjoy live music.

Woodside Amusement Park, Philadelphia, 1897.

The Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 1898.

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Crazes in America: 1900-1920

Bicycling: The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a bicycle boom in America. Bicycles became more affordable and accessible due to technological innovations and mass production. Bicycling provided a newfound sense of freedom and mobility for women, particularly. It even influences fashion and socialization. WHY?
Roller Skating: Roller skating gained popularity in the early 1900s, with roller rinks opening across the country. Roller skating also became a popular pastime for couples, as it allowed them to engage in a leisurely activity together (more about “courting” later!)
Pole-sitting: This craze involved climbing to the top of tall poles and sitting on platforms for extended periods of time, often for days or even weeks. This led to instant celebrity status for some, as well as cash prizes for these “Endurance Contests.”
Dance Halls and Dance Crazes: The early 20th century saw a rise in dance halls and ballrooms. There were also a number of dance crazes, such as the Dance Marathon, where couples were awarded cash prizes for dancing for hours or even days without stopping. Why were these popular during the Depression?

Couples at a Dance Marathon, 1924.

Women posing with their bicycles, Tomahawk, Wisconsin, 1900.

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Bicycles, Women and Independence in Quotes and Posters

"Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. It gives women a feeling of freedom and self-reliance. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel."

-Susan B. Anthony, Women’s Rights Activist.

"In effect, the bicycle was a machine that liberated women from their dependence on men. It gave them mobility, and therefore freedom." - Annette Kellerman, Australian Swimmer and Women's Rights Advocate.

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Spectator Sports are Hugely Popular

Baseball: Baseball had become America's national pastime by the early 1900s, with millions of fans attending games and following their favorite teams. The National League and the American League end their rivalry in 1903 by agreeing to hold a “World Series” to determine the “Best Team in the World.”
Boxing: Boxing was also a popular spectator sport in the early 1900s, with legendary boxers like Jack Johnson, Joe Louis, and Rocky Marciano capturing the public's imagination. Underdog boxer James Braddock is the inspiration for the movie “Cinderella Man.”
Horse Racing: Horse racing was also a popular spectator sport in the early 1900s, with famous races like the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness Stakes attracting huge crowds.
Cycling: Cycling races were also popular in the early 1900s, with local and national races drawing large crowds.

Program for the first World Series, 1903

James Braddock vs. Max Baer, 1935.

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Other Forms of American Entertainment

In their leisure hours, many turn-of-the-century Americans embrace new forms of entertainment

Circuses: Traveled by train and performed in large tents that could accommodate thousands of spectators. They would set up their tents in towns and cities across the country and perform multiple shows over several days.
Vaudeville shows: A variety show that consisted of a series of unrelated acts, such as comedy skits, musical performances, dance routines, acrobatics, magic shows, and animal acts.
Melodramas: Overly dramatic short plays or films, put on in theaters, etc. The “Damsel in distress tied to train tracks” is the perfect example of a Melodrama.
Nickelodeons: Small, low-cost theaters that showed black and white silent short films for a nickel (hence the name). They were often located in storefronts or converted storefronts, and they provided a cheap and accessible form of entertainment for the masses.

Broadway Nickelodeon/Vaudeville Theater, 1918.

A still from the silent film, “Barney Oldfield’s Race for a Life,” 1913, an early Melodrama.

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The Birth of A Nation

The first feature-length film, The Birth of a Nation, was released in 1915 and became a blockbuster hit, despite its controversial content:

The film portrays the Civil War and Reconstruction era in the United States and tells the story of two families, one from the North and one from the South.
The film portrays African American characters as uneducated and dangerous and includes several scenes of white actors in blackface portraying African Americans as thugs and criminals.
The film also depicts the Ku Klux Klan as heroic and just, showing them as a force that restores order and protects white Southerners from African Americans who are depicted as violent and corrupt.

Movie Poster for “The Birth of a Nation,” 1915.

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Cinema Evolves

1910s: During this time, several important film studios emerged, including Universal, Paramount, and MGM. These studios controlled ALL aspects of movie making, including script writing, actors contracts and movie theaters. This system became known as the “Hollywood Studio System” and dominated the American film industry for decades. (Why might this be a bad thing?)
In addition to feature films, there were also Newsreels, which provided audiences with the latest news and events from around the world. These newsreels were shown before feature films and were a popular way for people to stay informed.
In 1927, the first "Talkie," or film with synchronized sound, was released. The Jazz Singer was a huge success and signaled the end of the silent film era. This film included the white star, Al Jolsen, singing in blackface.
During this time, the government used films to promote patriotism and support for the war effort, while the film industry used films to promote a positive image of America and its values, such as “Don’t Be a Sucker” from the 2nd World War.

Movie Poster for “The Jazz Singer,” 1927.

Fox Movietone News Title Screen, 1928

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Mass Circultation Newspapers

Rise of the Penny Press: In the 1880s, the Penny Press emerged, which offered newspapers for just one cent.
Sensationalism and Yellow Journalism: The newspapers of the 1880s to the 1900s used lurid headlines and exaggerated stories to attract readers.
Rise of Publishing moguls (similar to the Robber Barons in other fields):

Joseph Pulitzer: Head of the New York World and papers in St. Louis, Atlanta and Detroit.
William Randolph Hearst: Head of the New York Journal & the San Francisco Examiner, as well as papers in Chicago, Los Angeles and Boston.

Telegraph Wire Services such as the Associated Press (AP) and United Press International (UPI) enabled newspapers to cover national and international news almost instantly.
Increase in Investigative Journalism: In the early 1900s, investigative journalism began to emerge, with journalists exposing political and corporate corruption.

Joseph Pulitzer, “The Father of Modern Journalism.” A Jewish/Hungarian immigrant to the U.S. in 1864.

William Randolph Hearst, given control of the SF Examiner at the age of 24 by his Senator father.

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Consumerism in the 1910s-1920s

MASS PRODUCTION: The introduction of new manufacturing techniques and mass production, such as the Assembly Line made goods more affordable and accessible to the public.
ADVERTISING: With the increase in production, manufacturers needed to find new ways to promote their products. Advertising, especially color printing and posters, were essential tool for companies to create demand for their Brand Name Goods: Household names such as Coca-Cola, Heinz or Hershey.
DEPARTMENT STORES: These new, large retail spaces offered a wide range of goods under one roof, and they provided a shopping experience that was both convenient and entertaining.
EXPANSION OF CREDIT: As consumerism grew, so did the availability of credit. Department stores offered installment plans that allowed consumers to purchase items they could not afford outright, such as furniture, appliances, cars or jewelry (such as?).
CONSUMERISM: Growth in the idea that purchasing goods could provide happiness and satisfaction, advertisements emphasized the status and pleasure that could be gained through consumption.

Advertising for Lucky Strike Cigarettes, 1920.

Women assembling Radios at the Atwater Kent Radio Company, Philadelphia, 1924.

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Courting: 1900-1920

FORMAL INTRODUCTIONS: Courting began with a formal introduction by a mutual friend or family member. It was very important for a young man to be introduced to a young woman's family before they could start spending time together.
CALLING CARDS: Men would use calling cards to express their interest in a woman by leaving a card at the woman's home. If the woman (and her family) was interested, she would invite him to visit her at a later date by sending him her card.
SUPERVISED VISITS: Early courtship took place primarily in the woman's home, under the watchful eye of her parents or chaperone. This was to ensure the young couple behaved appropriately and maintained their reputations.
PARLOR GAMES, CONVERSATIONS: During these visits, couples would engage in parlor games, conversation, and sometimes music or dancing. These activities allowed them to get to know each other while maintaining decorum.
PUBLIC OUTINGS: As the relationship progressed, couples might be allowed to go on public outings, such as picnics, dances, or church events. However, they were still expected to be chaperoned to preserve their reputations.
MARRIAGE PROPOSAL: If a couple wished to marry, the man would ask for the woman's hand in marriage from her father. If the father agreed, they would become engaged and begin planning the wedding.
ENGAGEMENT PERIOD: The engagement period allowed the couple to become more acquainted with each other and plan for their future together. Premarital intimacy was still frowned upon and couples were expected to “remain chaste.”

Women’s fashions, 1910.

Gentleman’s Calling Card, rather risque, early 1900s.

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Early 20th Century Calling Cards.

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The Flappers of the “Roaring 20s”

FASHION: Flappers wore shorter dresses, bobbed their hair, and wore makeup in bold and daring styles. These fashion choices reflected a desire to break away from the restrictive clothing and beauty standards of the past, and to express themselves in new and exciting ways.
ENTERTAINMENT: Flappers also enjoyed new forms of entertainment, such as jazz music and dancing. They frequented speakeasies and other underground clubs, where they could drink, dance, and socialize freely. This represented a significant departure from the more formal and traditional social events of the past.
SEX AND RELATIONSHIPS: The Flapper lifestyle was characterized by a more open and liberated attitude towards sex and relationships. Flappers were more likely to engage in casual dating and sexual experimentation, and they were not afraid to challenge traditional gender roles and expectations.
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO THE FLAPPER ERA: Widely available birth control, cosmetics, music (from radios) and transportation (from cars.)

17 year old moviestar Anita Page and friends, 1927.

Flappers dancing at a Jazz Club speakeasy, 1927.