An Empire Across three Continents .

Prepared By

Mr.Sudhanshu Rai.PGT (Hist.)

JNV, Boudh ,Odisha .

Boundaries of Roman Empire

1. To the north the boundaries of empire were formed by two great rivers, the Rhine and the Danube.
2. To the south, by the huge expense of desert called Sahara.
3. To the east river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean.
4. This vast stretch of territory was Roman Empire on empire across three contents.

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The whole period from beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of third century can be called early empire and the period from third century to the end is called late empire.

Division of Roman Empire

The political History of Roman Empire�

1. The Roman Empire was Culturally diverse Empire.
2. Ranges of languages were spoken but Latin and Greek were the official languages.
3. Augustus was the first emperor who had established monarchy in 27 B.C He was also called the Principate. Although Augustus was sole ruler and the real source of authority. But the fiction was kept alive that he was only the leading citizen not the absolute ruler as respect for senate.
4. Senate was the powerful body representing aristocracy and wealthiest families of Rome.
5. The emperor the aristocracy and the army were three main players in political history of empire.

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The political History of Roman Empire�

6. The success of individual emperor depends in control of army.

7. Romans had paid professional army where soldiers had to put 25 years of service.

8. External warfare was very limited because the empire was already vast. The only major campaign was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across Euphrates.

9. The roman empire had two types of territories they were dependent kingdom & provincial territory.

10. Some kingdoms were very rich like Herod kingdom which yielded 5.4 million denarii per year equal to 125000 Kg of gold per year.

11. All the empire was organised into provinces and subject to taxation Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to borders of Armenia and from Sahara to Euphrates.

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How it was possible?

The Answer Lies in Urbanisation

• The great urban centres that lined the shores of Mediterranean (Alexandria and Antioch were some biggest cities.
• It was through the cities the government was able to tax the provincial countryside which generated much wealth to the empire.
• Slowly the trend of decline of Italy within the empire both political and economic and the rise of new elites such as south of Spain and Africa .
• A city in Urban centre with its own magistrates ,city council and territory containing villages .Villages can be upgraded to status of cities as mark of imperial favour .
• Public bath was very striking feature of Roman urban life and population also enjoyed high level of entertainment.

Antioch City

Alexandria City

The third century Crisis�

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1. From 230 the Roman Empire found itself fighting in several fronts simultaneously. In Iran an aggressive dynasty emerged in 225 they were called as Sasanians and within just 15 years it expanded rapidly in direction of Euphrates.
2. German tribes also began to move against Rhine & Danube frontiers and whole period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions.
3. The rapid succession of emperors in third century (25 emperors in 47 years) is an obvious symptom of Strains faced by empire in this period.

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�Gender Roles in Roman Empire �

1. Prevalence of nuclear family it was exceptional for adult brothers to share common household.
2. The typical form of marriage was one whose the wife did not transfer to her husband authority but retained full rights in property of her father’s family. (Reflects women empowerment and independent status of women).
3. Marriages were generally arranged and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husband.
4. Divorce was relatively easy and needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve marriage either by husband of wife.

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�Literary in Roman Empire �

1. Certain rates of casual literacy varied greatly between different parts of empire for example Pompeii which was buried in volcanic eruption in 79 CE there is strong evidence of widespread casual literacy.
2. In Egypt hundreds of Papyri survive formal documents such as contracts were usually written by professional scribes and they often tell us that X or Y is unable to read and write.
3. Plurality of languages was spoken in Roman Empire they were Aramaic, Coptic, and Berber & Celtic.

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Economic expansion in Roman Empire �

1. The empire had substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, brickyards etc. Wheat wine & olive oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities and they come mainly from Spain, north of Africa, Egypt.
2. Liquids like wine & olive oil were transported in containers called ‘Amphorae’.
3. The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily Egypt and southern Spain were all among most densely settled or wealthiest part of empire
4. On the other hand large Roman territories were in much less advanced state. The pastoral and Semi-nomadic communities were often on move carrying their oven- shaped hut with them . (Mapalia)
5. Diversified applications of water power around the Mediterranean us of hydraulic mining techniques which reflects use of science & technology in empire.

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Amphorae

Mapalia

Controlling of slaves & workers �

1. Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in ancient world both in Mediterranean and near east. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 75 million.
2. Slave was an investment. On one hand if the Roman upper classes were often brutal towards their slave ordinary people showed much compassion.
3. Free labour was extensively used on public works at Rome because an extensive use of slave labour would have been too expensive.

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���Management of Labour by Columella �

1. The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to management of labour. Columella a first century writer recommends.
1. Landowners should keep a reserve stock of implement and tools twice as many they needed so that production to be continued.
2. To make supervision easier workers were sometimes grouped into gangs or smaller teams.
3. Pliny the elder the author of famous Natural history considered slave gangs as worst method of organising production because slaves who works in gangs were usually chained together by their feet.
1. A laws of 398 referred to workers being branded so they could be recognized if they try to run or hide away. A lot of Poorer families went into debt bondage in order to survive. Parents sometime Sold their children into servitude for period of 25 years.

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Columella

Pliny

Social Hierarchies in Europe

• The social structure was as follows.
• Senators (horsemen & Knights)
• The respectable section of people ( middle class)
• Lower class
• Slaves.
• The middle class now consisted of considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service of bureaucracy and army and also prosperous merchants and farmers.
• Below them were vast mass of lower classes known collectively Humiliores (literally- lower) they comprised a rural labour force of which many were permanently employed in large estates workers in industrial & mining establishment.
• The late Roman Bureaucracy both the higher and middle echelons was comparatively affluent groups because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying assets like land. There was a great deal of corruption in Judicial system

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Cultural transformation of Roman world from 4^th to 7^th centuries�

Italian God Mars

Italian /Roman God Jupiter

Italian /Roman God Juno

Cultural transformation of Roman world from 4^th to 7^th centuries�

1. In the west the empire fragmented Politically as Germanic group from north (Goths, Vandals, Lombards) took over major provinces and established kingdoms that are described as post-Roman kingdoms.
2. By the early 7 century the war between eastern Rome & Iran glared again and Sassanian who had ruled Iran since 3^rd century launched invasion of all major eastern provinces including Egypt.
3. The expansion of Islam from its beginning & in Arabia has been called the greatest political revolution to occur in history of ancient world.
4. By 642 barely ten years after prophet Muhammad’s death large part of both the Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to Arabs in Series of stunning confrontations.

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DIOCLETIAN

CONSTANTINE