EMERGENCY VEHICLE �OPERATOR’S COURSE T-T-T UPDATE

0

07-01-2025

Updated 11/01/2025

INSTRUCTOR

INTRODUCTIONS

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Housekeeping

• Bathrooms
• Emergency Exits
• Smoking Areas
• Snack Locations
• Trip Hazards

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3

Course provided by the

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Virginia Department of Fire Programs

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and the�

Virginia Association of First Responders

SESSION 1

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Course Pre-Requisites

• Minimum 18 years of age the first day of course

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• Have any valid driver’s license

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• Be affiliated or have pending affiliation with an Emergency Services Organization

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Certification Requirements

• Must attend 100% of the course

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• Must successfully complete written examination with a score of 70% or above

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• Must successfully complete practical skills evaluation (cone judgement course)

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Driving Experience

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It is highly recommended that a student have prior driving experience in the vehicle type and classification in which they are attempting to gain certification.

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Class Objectives

• To acquaint the student with the theories and practices of emergency vehicle operations.

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• Allow the student to demonstrate their skills in vehicle operations through the use of predetermined practical evolutions.

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Class Objectives

It is designed to explain how emergency driving differs from non-emergency driving and to test the driving skills of the student. Completion also satisfies the minimum requirements for an operator of an emergency vehicle as defined by the Virginia Office of EMS.

This course DOES NOT teach the student to drive and completing this course DOES NOT designate you as a driver in your agency.

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Vehicle Class Designations

• Class 1
• 0 – 10,000 pounds. Cars and small vehicles.

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• Class 2
• 10,001 – 26,000 pounds. Most ambulances

and smaller fire apparatus.

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• Class 3
• 26,001 + pounds. Most large fire apparatus and

heavy rescue vehicles.

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Vehicle Class Designations

• Class 4
• Tractor Drawn Apparatus - Aerial, Tanker / Tender, and Specialized Apparatus. All connections pivot over rear drive axles

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• Class 5
• Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Apparatus (Vehicle Class only used by agencies operating this type of vehicle).

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Class 1 Vehicles

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Class 2 Vehicles

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Class 2 Vehicles

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Class 3 Vehicles

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Class 3 Vehicles

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Class 3 Vehicles

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Class 4 Vehicles

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Class 5 Vehicles

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Desirable Student Attributes

• Skills
• Reading
• Writing
• Mechanical
• Physical Fitness
• Vision
• Hearing
• Disabilities

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Driver Selection

• Often selected through promotions

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• Often selected based on experience, training and certification requirements.

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• Drivers must have desire and put forth an effort to learn

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• Requirements
• Agency / Department
• Insurance
• Age
• Training
• NFPA Standards
• 1010
• 1400
• 1550
• 1580

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Driver Selection

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Additional Information

• Advanced behind-the-wheel driver training teaches drivers to drive more defensively. 

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• Trained operators can anticipate the actions of other drivers on the road and avoid situations that could cause a crash.

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• Drivers learn to position themselves better in traffic, stopping and starting less often and causing less wear and tear on agency vehicles.

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• Additionally, driver training can result in better fuel economy and lower overall maintenance costs.

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Statistical Information

*Studies show that people �without driver training experience� are involved in 62% more crashes �than those who have attended �driver safety courses.

Such training can, for you, �establish and maintain lower insurance costs, increase ability to avoid crashes, and �lessen the degree of the crash should one occur.

*Source – US Fire Administration EMS Safety

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Statistical Information

*Research has shown, approximately 95 percent �of all 9-1-1 EMS calls ARE NOT true emergencies.

Of the rest, less than 3 percent turn out to be �life-threatening or potentially life-threatening.

*Source – US Fire Administration EMS Safety

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Public Relations Concern

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You are your agency’s best or worst public relations agent.

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The public views you more while you are driving than at any other time.

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Good Public Relations

• Safe driving displays professionalism and respect for the public

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• Show courtesy

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• Keep vehicles clean

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• Initiate and maintain �public information programs

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Bad Public Relations

Vehicle crashes involving emergency services vehicles may have serious consequences.

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• Emergency efforts are delayed to the original scene

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• A second emergency scene is created

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• Vehicles and property may be damaged

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• Potential for injuries to personnel and the public

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• Public image of your department suffers

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• Driver / Department may be subject in a lawsuit

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Additional Bad Public Relations Issues

• Improper languages; gestures

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• Unkempt appearance

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• Driving recklessly

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• Impatience in dealing with the public

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Defensive Driving

Driving to prevent

crashes in spite

of incorrect actions

of others or adverse

conditions.

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“Distracted drivers make this more important than ever.”

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Seat Adjustment

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• Proper hand positioning

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• Legs slightly bent at knees

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• Proper seat height

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Position and Use of Feet

• Right Foot

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• Placed squarely over accelerator

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• Over brake only in anticipation of braking

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• Left Foot

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• Never used for braking

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• Rest on floorboard to assist with balance

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Position of Hands

• Holding the wheel

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• Firm grip with both hands

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• Do not let wheel spin freely

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• Do not palm the wheel

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• Do not allow wheel to slide through hands

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Proper Hand Position

Sit straight but relaxed and place your hands on the steering wheel. If your steering wheel were a clock, your hands should be at the 8 o’clock and 4 o’clock positions. Hold the wheel with your fingers and thumbs. Avoid gripping it with your palms. (pp 13-Virginia Driver’s Manual)

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Shuffle Steering

• Hands do not cross each other

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• Both hands remain in contact with wheel

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• Used for turns and for counter-steering

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• Becomes more comfortable with practice

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Vehicle Mirrors

• Drivers need to utilize mirrors effectively!

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• Adjustments

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• Prior to moving vehicle

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• Allow vision of side of vehicle and as much of lane as possible

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• Use convex mirrors to get the “big picture”

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Blind Spots

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• Know location of your vehicle’s blind spots – each vehicle is different

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• Compensate by using others to assist you

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• When possible, use spotter(s) while backing

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• Cameras may assist but may also be a distraction

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• Blind spot warning indicators

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Blind Spots / “No Zone”

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• Don’t “hang out” on either side of large vehicles.

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• Don’t tailgate.

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• Pass safely

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• If you cannot see the driver in mirror, they can’t see you.

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Virginia Driver’s Manual

Signaling

• Every driver must legally use signals to assist others in knowing what their intentions are.

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• “Do Not” use hazard (four-way) flashers while moving – most turn signals do not operate while hazard flashers are on.

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• Fire apparatus and ambulances must be equipped with backup alarms.

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• Sound horn prior to backing as an additional precaution.

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Braking

• Only accomplished with right foot.

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• Gradual steady pressure on pedal.

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• Engine retarders or engine brakes help in vehicle control.

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• Reduce excessive brake wear.

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• Follow manufacturers recommendations for wet / slippery roads.

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Braking

• Avoid locking-up brakes

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• Requires a greater distance to stop

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• Interferes with steering control

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• Most vehicles are equipped with Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

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• Abrupt stops can cause injury, mechanical failure, and skidding

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Braking

** IMPORTANT NOTE **

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Anti-Lock Brakes require a steady pressure applied to the pedal.

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DO NOT “pump” the brake pedal on vehicles equipped with Anti-Lock Braking Systems!

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Stopping Distance Formula

R.D. + B.D. = S.D.

Reaction

Distance

Braking

Distance

TOTAL STOPPING DISTANCE

Reaction Time = 3/4 Second

Braking Distance

INCREASES

with vehicle SIZE and SPEED

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Braking Distance Estimates by Vehicle Size

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FOLLOWING DISTANCE FORMULA UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS � �3 SECOND RULE

1001, 1002, 1003

WHEN DRIVING LARGER VEHICLES YOU MUST INCREASE YOUR FOLLOWING DISTANCE!

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Stopping Distance vs. 3 Second Rule�Heavy Two-Axle Trucks

MILES

PER

HOUR

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30

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40

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50

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60

FEET

PER

SECOND

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45

​

60

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75

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88

TOTAL

STOPPING

DISTANCE

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54 feet

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96 feet

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157 feet

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217 feet

3 SECOND

SPACE

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135 feet

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180 feet

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222 feet

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264 feet

AS SPEEDS INCREASE

AND VEHICLE SIZE INCREASES

INCREASE YOUR FOLLOWING DISTANCE

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The Smith System

• Five Principles of Safe Driving

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• Aim high in steering

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• Get the big picture

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• Keep eyes moving

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• Allow an out

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• Keep vehicle visible

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• FIVE PRINCIPLES OF SAFE DRIVING
• The Smith System states that following these five rules can dramatically reduce the risk of major accidents on highways and roads.
• �Aim High in Steering �The driver should focus their attention high – � - VIEW THE WHOLE ROAD.

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• Get The Big Picture�“Be aware of your surroundings at all times”. Having the whole picture means that you are doing your part to keep your vehicle as safe as possible while moving 100 feet a second.

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• Keep Your Eyes Moving�Remain alert consistent eye movement prevents your body from entering the trance state, keeping you alert to every driving condition ahead of you.

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• Allow An Out�Don’t let other drivers box you in while selecting their lanes. Always anticipate what choices other drivers make.

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• Keep Vehicle Visible �The final rule for the Smith System prevents accidents by removing assumptions made behind the wheel. As a driver, make sure that other drivers can see you and anticipate your move. If you feel you are coming into another driver’s blind spot, use the horn to get their attention.

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S-I-P-D-E

• A five-step approach to safe driving behaviors

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• Scan (Sense and Search)

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• Identify

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• Predict

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• Decide

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• Execute

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Sirens

• Usage specified by Virginia Motor Vehicle Code (used with “reasonable necessity”)

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• Be Aware that sudden usage behind a vehicle may startle the driver

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• Better response to sounds that change pitch often

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• Don’t rely on siren

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Sirens

• Short bursts of air horns and constant up and down siren oscillation most effective

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• Emergency vehicle operators must be aware of other emergency vehicles

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• Difficulty in hearing sirens of other emergency vehicles

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• Report approach to common intersections by radio

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Siren Projection

KEY POINT: DON’T OUTRUN IT

40 MPH

300 FEET EFFECTIVE

> > > >

> > >

60 MPH

12 FEET EFFECTIVE

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Disadvantages Of Siren Use �On Highways / Interstates

• Traffic normally moving at speeds equal to or greater than safe response speed

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• Vehicles stopping or trying to get out of the way can cause serious crashes and traffic jams

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• Evaluate the legal implications of not using siren

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Seat Belts

• Safety of others in the vehicle is �the driver’s responsibility

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• Be fully dressed before getting on

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• All riders should wear seat belts

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• Shall be seated and not permitted to stand

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• Riding on tailboard is UNSAFE and is NOT ACCEPTABLE

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Passenger Restraints

• Patient Compartment:

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• Always alert the driver when you are unbelted and providing patient care.
• Supplemental Restraint Devices / Systems

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• Air Bags

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• Seat Belt Pre-Tensioners

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Securing Occupants and Equipment

• Everyone and everything restrained

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Soft bags versus hard cases

Unnecessary equipment in compartments

Seatbelts for surprise equipment

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NIOSH Video�Squad bench view of 30 mph crash

Click on the video to play and replay

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Adult Patient Restraint

• Challenges

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• No single position works for all patients

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• Comfort issues

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• Facing rearward

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• Secure all straps / shoulder restraints

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• Head elevated

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• Medical equipment in use

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• Limitations of equipment

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NIOSH Video�Overhead view of a 30 mph crash

Click on the video to play and replay

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Potential Projectiles

• Collision

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• Rollover

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• Sudden Deceleration

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• Secure all equipment

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Potential Projectiles

• PPE Gear
• Patient Belongings
• Medical Devices
• Personal / Firefighting Gear
• Wheelchairs
• Flight Team Equipment

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Occupants and Equipment

• Final thought about securing everyone and everything�
• “First Responders must do a better job securing ourselves, patients and equipment. We often see the adverse results of others who don’t use seatbelts or child seats, so let’s set the standard.” �

“LEAD BY EXAMPLE”

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The Transportation System

The transportation system is made up of three (3) components:

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• The Vehicle
• The Driver
• The Environment

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The Vehicle

• Daily Maintenance Checks

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• Accomplished at the beginning of shift

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• Approaching the vehicle

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• Is the vehicle clean

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• Is the vehicle sitting level

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• Fluid leaks underneath

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• Condition of glass and lights

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• Tire condition

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The Vehicle

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Engine Compartment Checks

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• Fluid checks – oil, power steering, cooling system, brake, transmission, windshield washer

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• Batteries, hoses, and belts

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• Refer to manufacturer’s recommendations

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The Vehicle

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Cab Compartment Components

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• Controls and gauges

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• Seat adjustment, mirror adjustment, and seat belts

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• Equipment secure in cab

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• Windshield clean

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The Vehicle

System Checks

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• Lights, gauges, wipers, radios

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• Emergency equipment (lights, sirens, air horns, etc.)

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The Vehicle

Equipment In Compartments

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• Properly stored and secured

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• Cleanliness

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• Proper working order

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The Vehicle

Road Check

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• Steering

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• Transmission

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• Brakes and suspension

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• Document all defects and/or needed repairs

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The Vehicle

• Maintenance – �Weekly / Monthly

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• Same as daily but with greater detail – checks of all components and inventory

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• Check undercarriage for leaks and/or loose connections

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Vehicle Dynamics

Vehicle Size

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Vehicle Dynamics

• Weight and Height

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• Vehicle dynamics change as weight and height changes

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• Four-wheel drive vehicles

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• Common Causes of Weight Transfer

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• Drivers must become familiar with the normal handling characteristics of their vehicles

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Starting and Driving The Vehicle

• Follow manufacturers recommendations for starting, driving, and operating emergency vehicles.

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• Driver should review incident location, response route, and other pertinent factors prior to responding.

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• GPS usage and directional adjuncts

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• Ensure all personnel are dressed and seated with seat belts on prior to moving.

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General Driving Practices

• Drivers must become familiar with normal operating and gauge readings associated with each vehicle.

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• Drivers must be thoroughly familiar with operator’s manual and consult them for permissible limits when in doubt.
• Engine shutdown should never be made immediately after full-load operation.

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• Allow hot engine to idle until cool. Do not race engine prior to shutdown. Turbochargers must cool or severe engine damage will result.

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The Driver – Attitude

• The most important factor that you control in emergency vehicle operations is Driver Attitude!

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• The number one cause of vehicle crashes is �Driver Error or Driver Inattention.

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The Driver – Attitude

• Pitfalls
• Overconfidence
• False ideas
• Impatience
• Tension
• Exhibitionist
• “Road Rage”

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• Professionalism
• Maturity
• Responsibility
• Courtesy
• Desire
• Restraint

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Distraction Free Driving

• Human aspects we can control

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Types of Distractions

• Visual
• Auditory
• Biomechanical
• Cognitive
• Text Messaging
• “Protective” Distractions

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Visual Distractions

• Things that take your eyes off the road

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Auditory Distractions

• Sounds that attract your attention and your eyes off the roadway

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Biomechanical Distractions

• Things that take your hands off the wheel

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Cognitive Distractions

• Thoughts that take your mind off the road

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After work I have a lot of errands to run.

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Text Messaging

• Is the perfect storm of distraction
• Visual, manual, and cognitive distractions all in one.

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Let me read and respond to these messages.

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Text Messaging

• Highest risk of crashing

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“Protective” Distractions

• Some improve safety – Example “Clear Right.”

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Car coming out of driveway on the right. You got it?

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Fatigue

Effects of Fatigue

• Slowed motor skills
• Delayed reaction time
• Poor concentration
• Bad judgement
• Blurred vision
• Driving too slowly or fast
• Driving across lanes
• Rolling stops
• Agitation and /or impatience with other drivers.

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The Driver – Mental Fitness

• Operation of an emergency vehicle often involves high speeds, driver stress, and danger to life and/or property.

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• Driving under emergency conditions requires extra sensitive judgment and refined driving skills.

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The Driver – Mental Fitness

• Personal habits – behavior patterns developed through repetition

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• Knowledge

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• Judgment

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• Stress and reaction to stress

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• Experience – continued practice of good driving habits on which the driver can rely

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The Driver – Mental Fitness

• Substance Abuse – commonly seen in high stress positions

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• Researchers estimate that between the hours of 10 PM and 2 AM three (3) out of every ten (10) drivers are drunk.

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• Nearly fifty percent (50%) of the drivers arrested for DUI are social to moderate drinkers. Don’t think that it won’t happen to you.

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• Coffee does not speed up the elimination of alcohol and/or other substances from the body

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Physiological Aspects

• Visual Perceptions

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90% - 95% of all incoming data is obtained through VISION!

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Physiological Aspects

• Visual Perceptions

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• Eyesight

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• Glare recovery

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• Depth perception

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• Peripheral vision

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Physiological Aspects

• Visual Perceptions

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• “Moth Effect” – tendency for the eyes, especially when fatigued or drug influenced, to be attracted to light.

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• You will drive in the direction you are looking if sustained.

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Tunnel Vision

“A tendency to focus exclusively on a small area”

Effects Increase With Vehicle Speed

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Physiological Aspects

• Disabilities and Injuries

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• Any driver suffering from a disability or injury which affects that driver’s ability to drive in any way, should be relieved from performing the task.

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• Chronic Conditions

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• Those conditions, both mental and physical, which develop over a long period of time.

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The Environment – Weather

Adverse Conditions

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Visibility

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Traction

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Traction is affected by the weather.

Compensate by adjusting your speed.

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Adverse Conditions

• Stopping distances increase dramatically on snow and ice.

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• Snow tires and chains reduce stopping distances and increase traction.

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• Keep windshield clean with good wipers and defroster.

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Traction

• Static = 100% Efficiency

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• Rolling = 40% – 50% Efficiency

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• SLIDING = 0% Efficiency

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FRICTION

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Natural Forces

• Velocity

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• Distance traveled in a specified amount of time.

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• Measured in miles-per-hour (mph) or feet-per-second (fps).
• 20 mph = 29.33 (30) fps
• 40 mph = 58.66 (60) fps
• 60 mph = 88.00 (90) fps

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(As you can see feet-per-second is about 1.5 times that of miles-per-hour)

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Natural Forces

• Kinetic Energy
• Energy of motion.
• As speed increases so does the kinetic energy.
• Must be dissipated before the object will come to a stop.
• Force of Impact
• The force with which two objects collide.

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Road Types

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Interstate – higher speeds, few entrances and exits, crossovers, hard surface, good traffic flow, and few intersections, merging traffic

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Road Types

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Primary Roads – moderate to high speeds, increased business traffic, hard surface, and more intersections.

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Road Types

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Secondary Roads – moderate speeds, may not be hard surface, and increase in pedestrian and animal traffic.

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Road Designs

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Flat

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Road Designs

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Grooved

Straight

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Roads Surface Construction

• Concrete

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• Asphalt

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• Tar and gravel

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• Dirt

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Population

• City (Urban / Suburban)

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• Usually heavier traffic – vehicular and pedestrian

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• County (Rural)

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• Higher speeds

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• Pedestrians and wildlife

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• Possible poor design and construction

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Population

• Time of Day

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• Rush hour (time depends on area)

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• School hours

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• Late night, early morning

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• Day of Week

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• Monday through Friday

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• Weekends

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• Holidays

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Advice To Live By

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• You are a PROFESSIONAL driver
• Anything that takes your attention away from the road is dangerous
• Safe driving is not something you practice just some of the time
• Make a commitment to take driving safely seriously

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“Top Ten” Safe Driving Behaviors

1. Eliminate distractions

2. Don’t drive drowsy

3. Maintain a safe following distance

4. Don’t speed, know your limits

5. Communicate your intentions to other drivers and pedestrians

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“Top Ten” Safe Driving Behaviors

6. Continually survey your surroundings

7. Slow down in rain, snow, ice and fog

8. Be cautious of every intersection-regardless� of right-of-way

9. Never roll-through a stop sign

10. When backing up, use a spotter

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SUMMARY!!

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• Any Questions?

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EMERGENCY VEHICLE �OPERATOR’S COURSE

4/4/2025

Updated 11/01/2025

SESSION 2

4/4/2025

2-1

Legal Aspects

4/4/2025

2-2

Legal Aspects

Moral Implications

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• Public Relations – poor driving skills and practices reflect directly on the agency / department as a whole.

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• Self-Esteem – nobody wants to be involved in a vehicle crash. Causing a vehicle crash can affect you for the rest of your life.

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• Crashes can be avoided, even if you have to give up your legal right-of-way to the other driver.

4/4/2025

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Legal Aspects

Civil Implications

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• You can be sued by anyone, for any reason, at any time.

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• The Good Samaritan Law does not apply to emergency vehicle operation.

4/4/2025

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Legal Aspects

Driving Regulations

​

• Emergency Vehicle Operators are subject to all Motor Vehicle Codes in the Commonwealth of Virginia unless specifically exempted by the law.

​

• Civil liability and criminal prosecution for negligent actions. Exemptions only apply if due regard is taken for the safety of persons and property.

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• Vehicles must be covered by liability insurance according to the Code of Virginia, and/or have a certificate of self-insurance.

4/4/2025

2-5

Legal Aspects

Negligence

• Any action which violates a standard practice or care.

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Necessary Elements

​

• Duty to Act

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• Breach of Duty

​

• Injury or Loss

4/4/2025

2-6

Legal Aspects

Exemptions from traffic codes apply

only if the Emergency Vehicle Operator:

​

​

OPERATES THE VEHICLE WITH

“DUE REGARD”

FOR THE SAFETY OF OTHER PERSONS AND PROPERTY

​

4/4/2025

2-7

Virginia Traffic Laws

The Code of Virginia, Title 46.2, contains

certain motor vehicle laws which pertain

specifically to emergency vehicle operation

and which are in addition to other laws

governing the operation of motor vehicles.

​

Your knowledge of these laws, some of

which will be discussed at length, is

essential to the safe operation of all

vehicles.

​

Title 46.2

2-8

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-818.2

Use of handheld personal communications devices in certain motor vehicles; exceptions; penalty.

​

A. It is unlawful for any person, while driving a moving� motor vehicle on the highways in the Commonwealth,� to hold a handheld personal communications device.

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B. The provisions of this section shall not apply to:

1. The operator of any emergency vehicle while he� is engaged in the performance of his official duties;

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2-9

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-829

Approach of law-enforcement or fire-fighting vehicles, rescue vehicles, or ambulances; violation as failure to yield right-of-way.

• § 46.2-859

Passing stopped school buses; penalty; prima facie evidence.

• § 46.2-861.1

Drivers to yield right-of-way or reduce speed when approaching stationary vehicles

• § 46.2-890

Stopping in vicinity of fire or emergency

2-10

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

A. The driver of any emergency vehicle, when such�vehicle is being used in the performance of public services, and when such vehicle is operated under emergency conditions, may, without subjecting himself to criminal prosecution:

​

​

2-11

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

1. Disregard speed limits, while having due regard for safety of persons and property;

4/4/2025

2-12

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

2. Proceed past any steady or flashing red signal, traffic light, stop sign, or device indicating moving traffic shall stop if the speed of the vehicle is sufficiently reduced to enable it to pass a signal, traffic light, or device with due regard to the safety of persons and property;

The safest practice is to come to a �complete stop at all intersections!

2-13

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

3. Park or stop notwithstanding the other provisions of this chapter;

2-14

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

4. Disregard regulations governing a direction of movement of vehicles turning in specified directions so long as the operator does not endanger life or property;

2-15

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

5. Pass or overtake, with due regard to the safety of persons and property, another vehicle at any intersection;

2-16

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

6. Pass or overtake with due regard to the safety of persons and property, while en route to an emergency, stopped or slow-moving vehicles, by going to the left of the stopped or slow-moving vehicle either in a no-passing zone or by crossing the highway centerline;

2-17

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

§ 46.2-920

Emergency vehicles exempt from regulations in certain situations; exceptions and additional requirements.

​

7. Pass or overtake with due regard to the safety of persons and property, while en route to an emergency, stopped or slow-moving vehicles, by going off the paved or main traveled portion of the roadway on the right. Notwithstanding other provisions of this section, vehicles exempted in this instance will not be required to sound a siren or any device to give an automatically intermittent signals.

​

2-18

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

B. The exemptions granted to emergency vehicles by subsection A in subdivisions A1, A3, A4, A5, and A6 shall apply only when the operator of such vehicle displays a flashing, blinking, or alternating emergency light or lights as provided in § 46.2-1022 and § 46.2-1023 and sounds a siren, exhaust whistle, or air horn designed to give automatically intermittent signals, as may be reasonably necessary. *

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Continued on next slide

2-19

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

The exemption granted under subdivision A2 shall apply only when the operator of such emergency vehicle displays a flashing, blinking, or alternating emergency light or lights as provided in § 46.2-1022 and § 46.2-1023 and either (a) sounds a siren, exhaust whistle, or air horn designed to give automatically intermittent signals or (b) slows the vehicle down to a speed reasonable for the existing conditions, yields right-of-way to the driver of another vehicle approaching or entering the intersection from another direction or, if required for safety, brings the vehicle to a complete stop before proceeding with due regard for the safety of persons and property.

(Commonly referred to as “Ashley’s Law” which was enacted because of a 2008 fatal crash in Fairfax County that killed Ashley McIntosh when she was hit broadside at an intersection by a police cruiser responding to an assault.)

2-20

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-921

Following or parking near fire apparatus or rescue squad vehicle.

​

• § 46.2-922

Driving over fire hose.

​

• § 46.2-1020

Other permissible lights.

​

​

​

​

​

​

2-21

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-1022

Authorizes flashing blue, red and blue, blue and white, or red, white, and blue warning lights for law enforcement vehicles.

​

• § 46.2-1023

Authorizes use of red or red and white warning lights on fire apparatus, rescue vehicles, and ambulances.

​

2-22

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-1024

Authorizes use of flashing or steady-burning red or red and white warning lights on one privately owned vehicle of fire fighters and rescue squad personnel. (Updated Code July 1, 2024!)

• § 46.2-1025

Flashing amber, purple, or green warning lights. (Updated Code July 1, 2024!)

​

​

2-23

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-1028

Auxiliary lights on fire-fighting, Virginia Department of Transportation, and other emergency vehicles.

​

• § 46.2-1028.1

Illuminated identification systems on certain emergency vehicles.

​

• § 46.2-1029.1

Flashing of headlights on certain vehicles.

​

​

2-24

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-1029.2

Certain vehicles may be equipped with secondary warning lights.

​

• § 46.2-1061

Sirens or exhaust whistles on emergency vehicles.

​

• § 46.2-1078

Unlawful to operate motor vehicle, bicycle, electric personal assistive mobility device, electric power-assisted bicycle, or moped while using earphones.

​

​

​

2-25

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

• § 46.2-1094

Occupants of front seats of motor vehicles required to use safety lap belts and shoulder harnesses; penalty.

​

• § 46.2-1095

Child restraint devices required when transporting certain children; safety belts for other children less than sixteen years old required; penalty.

​

​

​

​

​

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2-26

Regulations Relating To Emergency Vehicle Operators

The Code of Virginia, Title 46.2 contains a number of laws other than driving regulations which directly impact emergency vehicle operations.

​

• The Superintendent of State Police has broad powers to regulate and approve safety equipment for emergency vehicles.

​

• Some of these laws must be observed before emergency vehicle exemptions to driving regulations are valid and effective.

4/4/2025

2-27

Motor Vehicle Code – Title 46.2

Other Considerations

​

• The Motor Vehicle Code-Title 46.2 does not specifically define what constitutes an emergency response.

​

• Due regard is the actions of a prudent person in an emergency.

​

• Individual agency / department policies cannot legally allow other exemptions than those stated by Virginia Law.

4/4/2025

2-28

Other Pertinent Laws

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

2-29

• §44-146.16. Definitions.

​

§ 8.01-225.3

Immunity for volunteer first responders en route to an emergency.

Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no volunteer firefighter or volunteer emergency medical services personnel shall be liable for any injury to persons or property arising out of the operation of an emergency vehicle as defined in § 46.2-920 when such volunteer is en route to respond to a fire or to render emergency care or assistance to any ill or injured person at the scene of an accident, fire, or life-threatening emergency and the emergency vehicle displays warning lights as provided in § 46.2-1022 or 46.2-1023 and sounds a siren, exhaust whistle, or air horn, unless such injury results from gross negligence or willful or wanton misconduct.

​

​

Other Pertinent Laws

There are many other pertinent laws that govern the safe operations of motor vehicles and other reference criminal laws listed in your student manual.

​

Please review these referenced laws.

​

​

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2-30

SUMMARY

• You must obey all Virginia Laws unless a specific exemption is granted to emergency vehicles.
• If an exemption is granted you must adhere to all the requirements specified in that exemption.
• Remember and apply “Due Regard” at all times.
• If you are utilizing emergency lights, you must engage your siren as “may be reasonably necessary”.

2-31

2-32

EMERGENCY VEHICLE �OPERATOR’S COURSE

4/4/2025

Updated 11/01/2025

SESSION 3

4/4/2025

3-1

Responding To The Incident

Emergency Driving

• An extremely complicated form of driving
• Higher speeds
• Evasive maneuvering

Communications

• Vital link in our system
• While not under our control, dispatchers can influence how we respond
• Driver should take time to review incident location and factors, which may affect response route

4/4/2025

3-2

Responding To The Incident

Intersections

​

• The number one place where emergency vehicle crashes occur.

​

• Negotiating Safely

​

• Blind and heavily traveled intersections should be approached and crossed at 15 mph or less.

​

• Use of warning devices is essential.

​

​

The safest practice is to come to a complete stop at all controlled intersections!

​

4/4/2025

3-3

Responding To The Incident

• Negotiating Safely

​

• Make eye-to-eye contact with each driver at the intersection to insure they see you.

​

• Check for hazards by looking left, then right, then left again.

​

• Multiple lane intersections are challenging for driver operators and require each lane to be cleared prior to proceeding.

​

** Your closest danger is from the left! **

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4/4/2025

3-4

Responding To The Incident

Passing

​

• Pass on the left whenever possible.

​

School Bus

​

• Loading and/or unloading

​

• YOU MUST STOP !

​

• Wait for the red warning lights to deactivate and the driver’s signal to pass.

4/4/2025

3-5

Responding To The Incident

Short Cuts

​

• Should not be used because you are unfamiliar with road conditions.

​

• Neighborhood residents (children) are not used to emergency vehicles and rush to the street to see the action.

4/4/2025

3-6

Responding To The Incident

Sirencide – the emotional reaction of emergency vehicle drivers when they begin to feel a sense of power and urgency that block out reason and prudence, leading to reckless operation of the emergency vehicle.

​

• A driver depends on his / her siren to move traffic for him / her and will eventually get over-relaxed to the conditions.

​

• The only way to prevent it is to know that it happens and guard against it.

4/4/2025

3-7

Responding To The Incident

Six Dimensional Thinking

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• What is in front and back of you?

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• What is to your left and right?

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• What is above and below you?

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4/4/2025

3-8

Responding To The Incident

Headlights –

• The most effective warning lights you have.
• Daylight Running Lights (DRL) are recommended.

​

Following Other Emergency Vehicles

​

• Units responding along the same route should maintain 500 feet distance between them.

​

• Use a different siren tone than the vehicle ahead of you.

4/4/2025

3-9

Responding To The Incident

Speed Adjustment

​

• Type of call

​

• Weather conditions

4/4/2025

3-10

Responding To The Incident

Traffic Control Devices

​

• Remote controlled traffic devices along pre-determined routes.

​

• Some cities use strobe lights on emergency vehicles and sensors on traffic lights (Preemption Systems - Opticom, etc.).

​

• Traffic control devices have increased efficiency but should not be considered fool proof.

4/4/2025

3-11

Responding To The Incident

Roundabouts: Tips for driving safely through a roundabout:

​

• As you approach the roundabout, slow down; look for the street and direction signs. This will help you know which exit to take. These signs should be posted along the roadside before you reach the roundabout.

​

• When you arrive at the roundabout, yield the right-of-way to pedestrians and bicyclists. You also must yield to any vehicles already in the roundabout. Sometimes your entry point will be controlled by a stop or yield sign, or traffic signal. When the way is clear, you may enter the roundabout.

3-12

Virginia Driver’s Manual

Responding To The Incident

Pedestrians are especially prone to serious injury when struck.

• Be careful around schools, playgrounds and in residential areas where small children may be playing or crossing the street.
• Look out for the elderly, who may have poor vision and hearing. Remember that the elderly and people with disabilities may move slowly.
• Be especially aware of pedestrians when making a right or left turn. They have the right-of-way. Allow pedestrians to completely cross the street before beginning your turn.
• Passing at a crosswalk is illegal. You may not see pedestrians crossing the road in front of other vehicles.
• Be alert for pedestrians at all times. Slow down and be prepared to stop.

​

​

3-13

Virginia Driver’s Manual

Responding To The Incident

Bicycles

• Bicycles are considered vehicles and have the same right-of-way as motor vehicles.
• Bicyclists are allowed to ride in the center of the lane, when necessary, such as when they are about to turn left or when the lane is too narrow to share side-by-side with a car.
• Bicyclists are legally allowed on all public roads except interstates and most freeways (limited access highways).
• Bicyclists may also be riding in either direction on sidewalks.
• Bicyclists are expected to obey the same traffic rules and regulations as vehicle drivers; however, some may not know or obey the rules.

3-14

Virginia Driver’s Manual

Responding To The Incident

Bicycles

• Check your blind spots.
• Slow down when you approach bicyclists.
• Using marked bicycle lanes is prohibited �by motor vehicles, including while passing.
• State law requires motorists to pass cyclists �with at least three feet of clearance.
• Give them plenty of room when passing and be prepared to stop suddenly.
• A bicycle’s small size allows it to slip into your blind spot easily.
• Always check for bicyclists before you pull out, change lanes, turn, back up, open the door, or proceed through an intersection.

3-15

Virginia Driver’s Manual

Crash Avoidance

4/4/2025

3-16

Crash Avoidance

Driver Error

​

• The leading cause of vehicle crashes.

​

Types of Crashes

• Vehicle Ahead of You
• Vehicle Behind You
• Collision from Side
• Passing Other Vehicles
• Vehicle Passing You
• Head-On Collision

4/4/2025

3-17

Crash Avoidance

The two vehicle crash accounts for more fatalities, injuries, and property damage than any other type.

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4/4/2025

*70% of serious vehicle crashes� are at intersections!!

*Source – US Fire Administration EMS Safety

3-18

Crash Avoidance

Time of Day

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• Allow extra space cushion

​

• Consider lane choice

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• Be aware of impaired drivers

4/4/2025

3-16

3-19

Crash Avoidance

Backing

​

• Use spotter whenever possible

​

• Accomplish slowly

​

• Concentrate attention (on spotter and in the direction you are backing)

​

• Rear and side cameras are considered tools to supplement vision

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4/4/2025

3-20

Crash Avoidance

Avoid backing whenever possible. Always utilize a spotter (ground guide) when available.

​

​

• Department policy

​

• Spotter positioning

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• Areas of responsibility

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• Communication

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​

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4/4/2025

3-21

Crash Avoidance

Hand signals need to be visible from a distance.

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4/4/2025

Straight Back

Right

Stop

Left

3-22

Crash Avoidance

Hand signals need to be visible from a distance.

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4/4/2025

Straight Back

Right

Stop

Left

3-23

Crash Avoidance

Hand signals need to be visible from a distance and in all conditions.

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4/4/2025

3-24

Crash Avoidance

Braking Techniques

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• Apply steady pressure.

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• Pumping action not� recommended for �ABS equipped vehicles.

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• Do not lock brakes

4/4/2025

3-25

Crash Avoidance

Skids

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• Loss of traction between road surface and tires

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4/4/2025

3-26

Crash Avoidance

Types of Skids

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• Front wheel – front wheel(s) locked

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• Rear wheel – rear wheel(s) locked

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• Four wheel – all wheels locked

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• Power skid – excessive acceleration

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• Spin out – too fast for turns

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• Hydroplaning – tires riding on fluids instead of road surface (can begin at 30 m.p.h.)

4/4/2025

3-27

Crash Avoidance

Skids

​

• Weight shifts can contribute to skids
• Adequate tire pressure and tread are critical for skid prevention

​

Skid Control

​

• Release brakes
• Turn steering wheel in direction of skid
• Do not over steer – secondary skid is usually worse
• Once skid is controlled, gradually apply power

4/4/2025

3-28

Crash Avoidance

REMEMBER – DO NOT OVERREACT

4/4/2025

3-29

Crash Avoidance

Lessen the severity of the crash

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• Decrease speeds

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• Go off the road if necessary

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4/4/2025

3-30

Summary Of Responding To The Incident

• We’ve discussed the importance of responding to the incident safely.

​

• How do we maintain our safety once we arrive on the scene?

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• Scene safety is a priority, but even by doing things the correct way.

​

Bad Things Happen To Good People!

4/4/2025

3-31

Organizational Philosophy

“Firefighters responding to calls need to operate as if someone is trying to run them over.”

​

James Joyce, Retired Commissioner

Chicago Fire Department

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4/4/2025

3-32

Organizational Philosophy

“All highly predictable incidents are highly preventable incidents!”

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Dennis Rubin, Fire Chief

Atlanta Fire Department

4/4/2025

3-33

Impact Of Roadway Incidents

• Congestion
• Clearance Time
• Secondary Events
• Responder Struck-Bys

4/4/2025

3-34

Three Classes Of Traffic Incidents

Major – expected duration of more than two (2) hours.

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Intermediate – expected duration of thirty (30) minutes to two (2) hours.

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Minor – expected duration under thirty (30) minutes.

4/4/2025

3-35

“Best Practices”

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Limit the Exposure

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• Minimum apparatus and personnel

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• Limit crews on scene to only those necessary

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Limit the Time On Scene

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• Clear-up crews as soon as possible�

4/4/2025

3-36

Five Parts �of the�Temporary Traffic �Control �Zone

4/4/2025

3-37

Upstream and Downstream

4/4/2025

Departing traffic is:

Downstream

Approaching traffic is:

Upstream

If incident is here…

3-38

4/4/2025

Right Shoulder

Right Lane�or Lane 4

Right Center Lane�Or Lane 3

Left Center Lane�or Lane 2

Left Lane�or Lane 1

Left �Shoulder

Photo by Ron Moore, McKinney (TX) Fire Dept.

3-39

Staging Distance At The Scene (Recommendations)

Distances:

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• 50 feet (no fire involved)

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• 150 feet (potential for fire)

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​

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• 2,000 feet (binocular distance)� for possible Hazardous Materials Incident. ERG recommendations

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4/4/2025

3-40

Staging Distance At The Scene (Recommendations)

4/4/2025

DANGER ZONE

Apparatus Positioning Locations

• Uphill, if possible Upwind, if possible

3-41

Highways Responses (General)

Interstates

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• Block traffic as necessary – cooperate with law enforcement

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• Use vehicle as safety barrier

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Curved and Straight Roads

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• Anticipate hazards from both directions

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• Place warning devices to channel traffic to desired areas

4/4/2025

3-42

Highways Responses (General)

Warning Device Placement (General)

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• Appropriate distance for road speed

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• Should be visible during all conditions

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• Should not create additional hazards

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• Do not use flares near fuel spills

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• Cones are more common and cost effective

4/4/2025

3-43

Vehicle Placement (General)

Every incident presents its own requirements

​

Type of Incident

• EMS
• Fire
• Rescue

​

Location of Incident

• Hazards
• Congested areas
• Amount of room / space needed

4/4/2025

3-44

Vehicle Placement (General)

Type of Vehicle

​

• Ambulance / Medic – patient care

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• Engine – attack and water supply

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• Rescue Squad – extrication

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• Aerial – limited reach

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• Support Vehicle(s) – specialized equipment and/or personnel

4/4/2025

3-45

“Best Practices”

Apparatus Positioning � and Arrangement�

• Block left, block right

​

• Guard the scene, �guard the crew�
• Park apparatus at an �angle and turn the

wheels away from incident�

4/4/2025

3-46

“Best Practices”

4/4/2025

• Work on side away from traffic�
• Look! Before disembarking apparatus

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• Consider Pump Operators and location of equipment

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​

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3-47

“Best Practices”

Scene Lighting

​

• Reduce emergency lights, use “Blocking” mode, (Sign Boards, Arrow Boards, Arrow Sticks off while vehicle is in motion)

​

• If available, turn off all forward-facing lights while vehicle is parked at incident scene

​

• Provide scene illumination after dark

​

• Presence of law enforcement vehicles shown to slow traffic

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4/4/2025

3-48

Traffic Control Devices

4/4/2025

Cones

​

• 28” minimum height, 36” height suggested
• Cones utilized at night require a 6” retroreflectorized band with a 4” retroreflectorized band spaced 2” apart
• Orange color approved for roadway usage, lime-green or other colors are not approved
• NFPA 1901 Revision

6”

4”

28”- 36”

3-49

Cone Placement

Posted �Speed Limit Distance Steps

35 mph 100 feet 35

45 mph 150 feet 50

55 mph 200 feet 70

> 55 mph 250+ feet 100

3-50

Temporary Traffic Control (TTC)

Cone Deployment

​

• At a minimum apparatus should be able to deploy a 200’ taper with five (5) cones placed at 50’ spacing between cones.

​

• A “safety cone” should be placed approximately 10’ behind the apparatus, located so that it provides a safe work zone next to the vehicle.

4/4/2025

3-51

Taper Setup

4/4/2025

Temporary Traffic Control (TTC)

3-52

Traffic Control Devices

4/4/2025

Signs

​

• 48” X 48” standard size

​

• Orange prismatic lens sheeting for daytime or nighttime operations is the standard background color with black lettering

​

• Fluorescent Pink (Coral) for daytime or nighttime operations is now an option for emergency responders

3-53

4/4/2025

3-54

4/4/2025

3-55

4/4/2025

3-56

4/4/2025

3-57

4/4/2025

3-58

4/4/2025

3-59

4/4/2025

3-60

Take Action!

4/4/2025

Awareness

Training

Equipment�(New and Existing)

Strategy and�Tactics

S.O.G.’s

Leadership

Don’t Be A Target!

3-61

SUMMARY!!

​

4/4/2025

3-62

3-63

EMERGENCY VEHICLE �OPERATOR’S COURSE

4/4/2025

Updated 11/01/2025

SESSION 4

4/4/2025

4-1

• GUIDELINES FOR THE DRIVING RANGE
•  
• Driving Range Considerations:

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• Weather conditions

​

• Rest room breaks and locations

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• Parking at the range

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• Staging area

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• Clothing – appropriate footwear

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• Window down for communication with Instructor (s)

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• Horn selection and usage designated by Lead Instructor

​

​

​

4/4/2025

4-2

• GUIDELINES FOR THE DRIVING RANGE
•  
• Driving Range Rules

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• Arrive on time.

​

• Recommend no persons allowed in the vehicle except the driver during evaluation

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• Seat belts will be worn at all times.

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• Horn must be sounded before any reverse maneuver.

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• Engage parking brake and wheel chocks (Class 3 and above) when vehicle is stopped.

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• Emergency flashers on when vehicle is parked.

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• Door closed when driver exits vehicle.

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• Other course / location / vehicle specific rules.

4/4/2025

4-3

• GUIDELINES FOR THE DRIVING RANGE
•  
• Vehicle Orientation

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• Vehicle Maintenance Check-off Sheets

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• Vehicle controls and operations

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• Vehicle overhead and width clearances

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• Front bumper / Back step locations and design

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• Seat and mirror adjustment

​

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4/4/2025

4-4

• GUIDELINES FOR THE DRIVING RANGE
•  Vehicle pivot points and how they relate to driving the course.

​

​

​

4/4/2025

4-4

Center of Axle

Front or rear of Axle

• EVALUATION FOR THE DRIVING RANGE

​

• Lead Instructor has final determination on range setup and Student Performance Criteria!

​

Students must pass minimum skills evaluation requirements (on all events) – minimum of five (5) events.

​

Successfully complete each course set-up on the range.

​

Does not exceed the number of points assigned to the driving course by the Lead Instructor.

​

Points are assessed for cone strikes and range rule violations.

​

A student may be tested up to two (2) times during the course. Any further remediation can be delayed until other students have completed the course or at discretion of Lead Instructor.

​

Time requirements for completing the driving course are flexible according to the course set-up.

​

Adjust event size for vehicle being used in evaluation.

4/4/2025

4-5

4/4/2025

Backing Spotter Exercise

Objectives:

Proper Spotter Position

Proper Communication

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Common Problems:

Loss of Spotter in Mirrors

Poor Hand Signals

Driver Inattention

Background Information

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Since the majority of vehicle crashes occur while backing at slow speeds, this exercise is one of great importance. This exercise emphasizes the use of a spotter to assist the driver in a backing situation. This exercise is not counted as 1 of the 5 courses required for completion of course, but is required of every student.

4-6

4/4/2025

Range Set Up:

Utilize any Course that Requires Backing

Driver not evaluated

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Student Information:

The speed at which the vehicle is driven is SLOW. The spotter must successfully guide the driver thru the course. Drivers’ sometimes need assistance getting out of a tight spot. Therefore, the spotter should also assist the driver going forward out of the course.

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Success Completion:

Demonstrate Proper Signaling both forward and backward

4-7

Backing Spotter Exercise

4/4/2025

Blindside Backing Exercise (J Curve

Backing Maneuver

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Back into alley passenger side –Stop bumper within 12 inches of cones – Exit alley.

Adjust course for vehicle dimensions as needed.

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12’

12’

* Possible Spotter Course *

4-8

4/4/2025

Adjust exit width for vehicle as needed.

Diminishing Clearance Exercise

13’

9’ or vehicle + 4”

75 – 100 feet

50 feet minimum

START

Enter course from a stopped position then proceed forward until vehicle is completely out of course.

4-9

4/4/2025

Light Bulb / Traffic Circle Exercise

Can Use Reverse Directions to increase difficulty – NOT Required!

Adjust course for vehicle dimensions.

Enter course – Proceed to the right – Follow around light bulb – Exit course.

* Possible forward spotter course *

4-10

Offset Alley / Lane Change Exercise�

4/4/2025

Lanes 12’ Wide

or

Vehicle Width + 24“

30’

30’

START

Drive thru course – Alternating lanes – Stop when entire vehicle is out of the course.

Corrections may be made while in the course.

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Back thru course optional.

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Adjust course for vehicle dimensions as needed.

150’

30’

30’

30’

* Possible Spotter Course *

4-11

4/4/2025

Parallel Parking Exercise

10’

Length of vehicle plus

6’

From Start position – Drive forward and position for backing into course – Back into course – Pull forward to straighten vehicle inside the cones – Entire vehicle should be inside course and parallel with the cones on passenger side – Back vehicle inside event for position – Exit event.

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START

* Possible Spotter Course *

4-12

4/4/2025

Perpendicular Backing Exercise

Start – 1

Start – 2

Start 1

Drive into course -

Back into alley from driver’s side to within 12” of cones – Exit forward to Start 1.

Start 2

Drive into course – Back into alley from passenger side – Exit forward to Start 2.

15’

28’

35’ + -

* Possible Spotter Course *

Reposition vehicle

Adjust for vehicle

4-13

4/4/2025

Forward

Reverse

Starting with cones on driver side – Drive thru serpentine alternating back and forth – Stop at far end and position vehicle to back thru in opposite direction with first cone on passenger side – Continue back to start position.

30’ – 38’

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Adjust for vehicle

Serpentine Exercise

190’

* Possible Spotter Course *

Forward and Reverse

4-14

4/4/2025

Straight Line – Close Clearance Exercise

From START position - Drive thru course –

Stop within 12” of cones with front bumper.

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Back thru course to start

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Adjust course for vehicle as needed

75’ – 100’

Front Bumper

* Possible Spotter Course *

12 Inches

START

Vehicle length or 50’

4-15

4/4/2025

Turn and Back Exercise

12 ft.

1 ½ X vehicle width

1 ½ X vehicle width

Vehicle length + 6’

Vehicle length + 6’

Adjust for Vehicle

* Possible Spotter Course *

Forward and reverse

12“

12”

START

From the start position the student will enter the lane and proceed to the left – Then back down the course to within 1” of the cones – The student will then exit the course. Repeating the course to the right is allowed for additional skills practice but is not required.

4-16

4/4/2025

Cone Course Layout - Example #1

4-17

Serpentine

START

Turn Around

4/4/2025

Cone Course Layout - Example #2

4-18

Serpentine

Turn Around

Finish