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Counseling American

Indians/ Alaskan Natives

Samantha Desmore and Jennifer Zarwell

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Demographics

The American Indian and Alaska Native population was 2.9 million in 2010

Representing .9% of the total population.

An additional 1.81 million Americans report having Indian roots.
Roughly 34% of American Indians live on reservations, whereas about 57% occupy metropolitan areas.
Legally to be Indian requires a blood portion of at least 25%

Sue & Sue (2013)

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Wisconsin Demographics

The 2000 Census counted 225 people in Wisconsin (0.01%) who identified as Alaska Native
Wisconsin Indian population totaled 53,358 in 2008 (0.9% of the state's population)
About 45% of Wisconsin’s American Indian population resided in metropolitan areas
7,313 people (13.7%) resided in Milwaukee County

https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/minority-health/population/amind-pop.htm

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https://www.worldofmaps.net/en/north-america/wisconsin-usa/map-federal-lands-and-indian-reservations.htm

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Alaska Natives

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Alaskan Native Cultural Commonalities

Matrilineal clan system
Complex social system
Kinship and family relationships
Ceremony and beliefs
Subsistence living is shared

Matrilineal Clan system: Children inherit all rights through their mother; linage is traced through Mother.

Complex social system: each village and clan resolves differences through traditional customs and practices. Village members punish those who violate rules, some serious violators are banished

Kinship and family relationships are very important. They help in the management of the village and in decision making related to everyday life.

Ceremony and beliefs: Ceremonies are for social gatherings, like marriages and spiritual ceremonies. Alaskan Natives believe in reincarnation and the recylcing of spirit forms from one life to the next. Before and after a hunt, there is a spiritual ceremony to release the animals spirit so it can be regenerated and return for the future, if the ceremony is not performed the meat can turn bad and future hunts will be scarce.

Subsistence living is shared: All hunters are expected to follow customs of sharing in the community

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Inupiat Eskimo

Blanket Toss Bowhead whale skull Whale bones

The Inupiat celebrate a whale hunt by tossing a person up into the air. In the past, the blanket toss had a practical purpose; a hunter would be tossed into the air so they could see across the horizon and spot whales to hunt. Now the object of the blanket toss is pure entertainment. The object of the toss is for the person to maintain their balance and toss gifts out into the crowd.

Crews hunt in fall and spring
Some do not hunt due to economic hardship; putting together & sustaining a crew can be costly for captains: hunting whales is a long process which requires feeding crew and maintaining supplies
Chilly weather is good news; the ice can destabilize or crack if weather fluctuates.
Alcohol restriction

Bowhead whale skull: arctic whale the skull can break into ice at least 7 inches thick

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Barrow Alaska

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William L Iggiagruk Hensley

Inupiat Alaskan Native

Spent 10 years in the Alaskan state legislature as a representative and senator

Wrote a memoir called, Fifty Miles From Tomorrow. About:

Growing up living a semi nomadic lifestyle with relatives.
Advocated for Native land rights.
Played a key role in enabling the Inupiaq to take charge of their economic and political destiny.

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History of Cultural Destruction for Alaskan Natives

Russians began massive effort to secure Alaskan resources from land and water. They killed and enslaved Aleuts to hunt for them.
Treaty of Cession 1867: U.S. paid Russia $7.2 million for control of Alaska.
The treaty accelerated the onslaught of sea otters, whales, fish, fur-bearing animals.
Discovery of gold in the Klondike and on the beach of Nome brought hundreds of people looking for gold which put more pressure on natives, animals, and the environment.

Russian Time of

Contact

Aleut, Island	1750-1780
Tlingit, Coast	1775-1800
Yuit, South	1780-1840
Athabascan, Interior	1840-1860
Inupiat, North	1850-1870

Hensley wrote “My and cohorts and I had been extending themselves tremendously, both physically and mentally, doing what we felt we had to do to uplift ourselves, our families, our people. After 15 years of doing everything we could, they had come to a dead end. He realized all the political and economic activity had not really brought better lives for his people. In spite of his best efforts, he wrote, we were becoming alcoholic or violent, committing suicide, neglecting children, beating wives, and going to jail.

He finally began to understand the nature of his situation and the continuum of his people going back thousands of years.

He says “it began when the first Russians noticed the existence of Alaska and began the massive effort to secure the riches its land and waters contained, killing and enslaving ALeuts to hunt for them. It accelerated after the Treaty of Cession, where the US paid Russia $7.2 Million for control of Alaska. Then the onslaught against sea otters, whales, walrus, fish, and fur-bearing animals sped up furiously, as did the destruction of Native cultures.”

The discovery of gold in the Klondike and on beaches of Norse made it worse when people poured in from all corners of the earth.

Time of contact means the earliest time when the Native groups had significant interaction with Europeans.

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History of Cultural Destruction for Alaskan Natives

5. Cultural War against Inupiat, Yupik, Aleut, Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida

Generation after generation native people were told they were not adequate and their religion and language was repressed through:

The church ran the education system.
The classroom

Implications:

Disconnected from language and culture
Natives lost their spirit and felt useless.
Alcoholism and depression
Family relationships grow weak and individuals live in isolation

5. Generation after generation native people were told they weren’t adequate and their religion and language was repressed. Hensley says the main tools were the church and the classroom:

The Church joined with the federal government to remake Alaskan Natives in their image. Starting in September to June every year, a system was put into place by Sheldon Jackson, the Presbyterian mission organizer who was appointed to run ALaskan’s educational system. Jackson wrote: “If the Natives of ALaska could be taught the ENglish language, be brought under Christian influences by the missionaries and trained into forms of industry suitable for the territory, it seems to follow as a necessary result that white population of ALaska, composed of immigrants from the states, would be able to employ them in their pursuits, using labor to assist in mining, transportation, and the production of food.”

Nowhere in the system he built did it to allow Native people to have a say in their lives.

Hensley says “the denigration of our language and culture had a negative effect on our self-perception that has continued for generations.

How would you counsel a Alaskan Native who feels depressed and disconnected from their culture? (connects with next slide)

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Resilience

Renewal of identity to bring positive change to Native communities.

Identifying themselves as a part of a community, becoming unified.
Discover core values as a positive basis for change.
Land use: resources for the community and for family.
Language: pass on to children and grandchildren.
Bloodlines are strong even among the modern generations.
Art and music: joy and celebration to life.

Alaskan Natives hold 16% of the land.

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Tribal Social Structure

The tribe is fundamentally important for many Indians.
The tribe and the reservation provides Indians with a sense of belonging and security.
Indians judge themselves in terms of whether their behaviors are of benefit

to the tribe

The reservation is a place to conduct ceremonies and social events and to maintain cultural identity Sue & Sue (2013)

SAM

The tribe is fundamentally important for many Indians.

Even individuals living off of the reservation.

The tribe and the reservation provide Indians with a sense of belonging and security.

These tribal connections are significant because these individuals see themselves as an extension of their tribe
But not only that, Status and reward are obtained with loyalty to tribal structure

In addition, Indians judge themselves in terms of whether their behaviors are of benefit to the tribe
The reservation is a place to conduct ceremonies and social events; as well as, a place to maintain cultural identity

Indians who leave the reservation to seek greater opportunities sometimes report losing their sense of personal identity.

Therefore, Interventions with American Indians/ Alaska Natives families and individuals should include an assessment of the importance of tribal relationships in any decision making process.

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Family Structure

Varies from matriarchal structure where woman govern the family, patriarchal structure, men govern the family.
High fertility rate
Out of wedlock births
Women are strong role models
Extended family is the basic unit; children raised by aunts, uncles, grandparents

Implications:

Misinterpretations about extended family vs nuclear family with counselors.

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Cultural and Spiritual Values

Sharing:

Among Indians, honor and respect are gained by sharing and giving
The accumulation of wealth is not a high priority but is a means to enjoy the present

Cooperation:

Indians work hard to prevent dissonance and friction
They believe that the tribe and the family take priority over the individual

Noninterference:

Indians are taught to not interfere with others and to observe rather than react impulsively
Rights of others are respected

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Cultural and Spiritual Values continued

Time orientation:

Indians show greater focus on the present than the future
Ideas of punctuality or planning for the future may be unimportant

Spirituality:

The spirit, mind, and body are all interconnected.

Nonverbal communication:

Learning occurs by listening rather than talking
Eye contact with an elder may be seen as a sign of disrespect

SAM

Another value is Time orientation:

Indians show greater focus on the present than the future

They prefer to live in the here and now.

Ideas of punctuality or planning for the future may be important
The implications of this are that tasks may be approached from a logical perspective rather ran according to deadlines, which is different than the majority culture.

These differences in time orientation should be taken into consideration as counselors working with these individuals.
By understand this, counselors are better equipped to help these individuals tackle life obstacles in way that fits with their Indian values.

Next is Spirituality:

Indians believe that the spirit, mind, and body are all interconnected.

They believe that illness involves disharmony between these elements
Furthermore, they believe positive emotions can be curative

As counselors all of these elements may need to be considered and addressed to help clients identify factors involved in disharmony.

Lastly is Nonverbal communication:

Indians believe that learning occurs by listening rather than talking
In addition, in the Indian culture, eye contact with an elder may be seen as a sign of disrespect
Potential misunderstandings can occur because of these cultural nonverbal difference between Indian culture and the majority culture.

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Cultural Strengths

Spirituality
Respect for traditional values
Extended family networks
Allegiance to the family, community, and tribe
Respect for elders
Respect for environment and the land
Promotion of themes: belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity
Values: listening and observing

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Major Events in American Indian History

War and Disease

Contact with Europeans greatly affected the American Indian population.
End of 18th century, only 10% of original population remained.

Indian Child Welfare Act, 1830’s

Removed children from their families and placed in English-speaking boarding schools.
More than 125,000 Indians from different tribes.

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Smallpox

The smallpox virus is caused by Variola major, related to cowpox and monkeypox. It is spread through respiratory contact.

Mortality Rate:

38.5% Aztecs

50% Piegan, Huron, Catawba, Cherokee, Iroquois

66% Omaha, Blackfeet

90% Mandan

100% Taino

Effects:

Population loss forced fusion of different residential groups.
Decrease in fertility and reproduction
blindness

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Indian Removal Act

President Andrew Jackson signed an act in 1830 that granted unsettled lands west of the Mississippi River in exchange for Indian lands within existing state borders.

Tribes were forced to sign it even though it was supposed to be voluntary.

5 Tribes were affected:

Cherokee
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Creek
Seminole

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Trail of Tears

The Cherokee did not want to move

to Indian Territory and give up 8 million

acres located in Georgia, North Carolina,

Alabama, and Tennessee.

They fought in U.S. court but lost.
Cherokee Nation forced removal and had to travel 800 miles.
18,000 were removed and at least 4000 died along the route to Indian Territory.
Long journey, many were robbed and cheated by contractors, lawyers, agents, speculators,and local police.
Food supply disappeared or arrived in short supply.

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Wounded Knee

Chief Big Foot’s Camp massacred Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota December 29, 1890

Events

Intermittent war between U.S. and the Plains Indian
Sitting Bull celebrates Ghost Dance at Standing Rock.
Ghost Dance seen as a threat to the U.S. government.
General Miles, a war veteran and Indian fighter wanted to arrest Sitting Bull.
Sitting Bull’s arrested by reservation police, then shot and killed by mistake.
Miles believes Big Foot is a threat and the 7th Calvary locates Big Foot’s camp.
Mission to disarm Big Foot’s camp, remove them from the area.
After someone in the camp fires their rifle into the air, the army fires indiscriminately at the Indians, all were killed.

JEN

Wounded knee massacre

In 1890 the government worried about the influence at Pine Ridge of the Ghost dance movement.

Wovoka, a shaman, envisioned the coming of the new world populated by Indians living on the Great Plains where buffalo were again plentiful. Wovoka created the Ghost Dance, a ceremony to invoke the spirits of the dead and to facilitate their resurrection. Many Sioux believed if they practiced the Ghost dance and rejected the ways of the white man, the gods would create the world anew and destroy all non believers, including the Indians. The U.S.saw it as a threat and ordered to arrest any Indian who participated in it.

Reservation police tried to arrest Chief Sitting Bull, but by accident they shot and killed him, which increased tensions

Later, the U.S 7th Cavalry surrounded Big Foot’s camp demanding they surrender. During this time a fight broke out between a Native and a soldier.

A brutal massacre of all the Sioux followed.

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Dawes Act

1871- Congress declared tribes were no longer separate, independent governments. Tribes placed under U.S. guardianship

Dawes Act February 8, 1887

Allotted reservation lands to individual Indians in units of 40-60 acres.
Land remains after allotment are to be sold to white people to pay for Indian Education.
Government wanted to “encourage” Indians to farm, but most of the land is unsuitable to farm.
Plots too small to support livestock.
Most land fell into white ownership.
Most dramatic loss of land in Indian Territory, 5 Indian Nations held onto half the territory.

JEN

Dawes Act

The Dawes Act declared tribes were no longer separate independent governments. It placed tribes under the guardianship of the federal government.

Much of the land fell into the hands of European AMericans. There was to be a 25 year trust period to keep Indians from selling their land allotments, but an 1891 amendment did allow Natives to lease them, and a 1907 law let them sell portions of their property. A policy of "forced patents" took additional lands out of Natives hands.

Under this policy, begun in 1909, government agents determined which Indians were "competent" to assume full responsibility for their allotments. Many of the Natives quickly sold their lands to white purchasers. Altogether, the policy reduced Indian-owned lands from 155 million acres in 1881 to 77 million in 1900 and just 48 million acres in 1934.

The most dramatic loss of Indian land and natural resources took place in Oklahoma. At the end of the 19th century, the 5 Nations held half the territory's land. But by 1907, when Oklahoma became a state, much of this land, as well as its valuable resources, had passed into the possession of European Americans.

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Before and After (map)

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Present Day Counseling Challenges: Education Concerns

High rate of school failure.

Academic decline and truancy
Drop in achievement motivation

Academic success does not lead to rewards or success for students.
Youth do not see educational value.
Not finishing high school, 11% have a bachelor’s degree, vs 24% U.S

Ideas for a positive change:

Reorganize sociocultural history of Indians and related perceptions of schools.
Adapt curricula to reflect students’ cultural background.

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Counseling Challenges: Acculturation

Youth experience the conflict of overexposure to two very different cultures.
Youth are caught between parents expectations and adapting to majority culture.

5 Levels of cultural orientation (degree to which the client identifies with native culture)

Traditional
Marginal
Bicultural
Assimilated

5. Pantraditional

JEN

The challenges American Indians and Alaskan Natives experience in acculturation (the adopting the beliefs are behaviors) of European American society are:

Failure to develop a positive self-image or strong ethnic identity.
Serious problems identified involve family relationships, grades, and concerns about the future
Boys reported their Indianness as a problem and girls felt they did not want to live.

5 levels clients identify with their native culture

Traditional: the individual speaks little English and practice traditional customs and methods of worship
Marginal: may be bilingual but lost touch with cultural heritage and not fully accepted into mainstream society.
Bicultural: is conversant with both sets of values and can communicate in a variety of contexts.
Assimilated: embraces only mainstream cultural values, behaviors, and expectations
Pantraditional: has been exposed to and adopted mainstream values but is making a conscious effort to return tothe “old ways”

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Health Concerns

The Alcoholism mortality rate is over twice as high for indians as that for the U.S population as a whole
High rates of obesity and diabetes
Injury related deaths occur more regularly compared to the overall U.S rate.
These populations also suffer with high rates of depression and substance abuse.

Sue & Sue (2013)

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Challenges: Alcohol and Substance Abuse

Substance abuse is one of the greatest problems faced by American Indian/ Alaskan Native populations
Alcoholism is a significant concern for many tribes
In Indian culture, it is common to begin drinking at an early age
Alcohol use is associated with low self-efficacy and feelings of powerlessness
Substance abuse is also related to low self-esteem, cultural identity conflicts, lack of positive role models, childhood maltreatment, social pressure to use substance, hopelessness about life, and breakdown in the family (Sue & Sue, 2010)

SAM

Substance abuse is one of the greatest problems faced by American Indian/ Alaskan Native populations

Rates of alcohol use vary across tribes and regions but American Indians have the highest weekly alcohol consumption of any ethnic group

Therefore, alcoholism is a significant concern for many tribes
In Indian culture, it is common to begin drinking at an early age

As a result, alcohol and drug use are also high among American Indian youth

Drinking alcoholic beverages may initially have been incorporated into cultural practices as an activity of sharing, giving, and togetherness.
But heavy alcohol use is associated with low self-efficacy and feelings of powerlessness
Substance abuse is also related to low self-esteem, cultural identity conflicts, lack of positive role models, childhood maltreatment, social pressure to use substance, hopelessness about life, and breakdown in the family (Sue & Sue, 2010)

Implications: Successful drug treatment programs have incorporated appropriate cultural elements.

Community-oriented programs have been created. To engage the entire community rather than specific individuals

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hdt9ZBQy7WM

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Suicide

American Indians have high suicide rates
It is thought to be the result of alcohol abuse, poverty, boredom, and family breakdowns
When compared to other youth, American Indian/ Alaska Native youth have twice the rate of attempted and completed suicides
The time of greatest risk for suicide is from adolescence to adulthood

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Specific Challenges for Women: Domestic Violence

Traditional inherent power/ immediate and effective community response.
Overcoming stereotypes, such as; the Indian princess and the slave; labeled “prostitute-princess syndrome” have psychological consequences for women, treatment of women, and violence towards them.

Internalized value and view of abuse

The European legal and education systems and the elimination of traditional peace keeping services allowed domestic violence to occur.

Left women without inherent powers that made domestic violence a rare occurrence.

Experience a higher rate of domestic violence compared to national average.
Distrust white agencies/familial alienation/Jurisdictional struggles

JEN

Inherent power: the culture provided women with the opportunity to have social and familial power. The community took away the abusers honored roles and ostracized or even enforced exile. In a psychological system that demanded connection to spirituality imparted by knowledge learned from family elders and sacred tribal members and entities, exile was worse than death

Women have had to overcome stereotypes, like the Indian princess and the slave, labeled “prostitute princess syndrome” this has caused psychological consequences for women, the treatment of women, and the violence towards them.

(Internalized value and view of abuse) Women have incorporated the dominant culture's belief of the stereotypes that they have less value than men and are stronger than European American women, so actions that European American women view as abuse may not be considered so by American Indian women and they may have a self conceptualization that fit battered women.

American Indian women often remain silent because of cultural barriers, a high level of distrust of White-dominated agencies, fear of familial alienation, and the historical failure of state and tribal agencies to prosecute domestic crimes.

Also there’s distrust in white agencies, familial alienation, and jurisdictional struggles between state and tribal authorities than can result in a lack of help for women

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TzguMqHkFU

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Counseling Implications

Consider the historical relationship between Alaska Natives/ American Indians and the dominate culture.
Counselors should be knowledgeable not only of the general history of indigenous natives but the history and beliefs of client's particular tribal affiliation
Discuss client's self-identity, tribal affiliation (if any), as well as their relationship to origins.
Address spirit, mind, and body in treatment.
Interventions might need to include extended family's input.
Be culturally consistent and use client- generated solutions.

SAM

As counselors it is important to consider the historical relationship between Alaska Natives/ American Indians and the dominate culture.

If counselors have more traditional client, it is important for them to assist these clients in understanding expectation of the dominant culture.

In addition, counselors should be knowledgeable not only of the general history of indigenous natives but the history and beliefs of client's particular tribal affiliation
As counselors, it is essential to discuss client's self-identity, tribal affiliation (if any), as well as their relationship to origins.

By doing so, it provides counselors with the insight needed to best help that individual client and to determine an effective treatment plan

Since, Indians believe that the spirit, mind, and body are all interconnected. It is also necessary as counselors to address each of these in treatment.
Because of the importance of tribe and family, interventions might need to include extended family's input.
In addition, counselors need to be culturally consistent and use client- generated solutions.

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Counseling Application

Goal and treatment options differ based on the client's degree of acculturation and the individual's traditional beliefs
CBT therapy

Building self-esteem, identifying emotions, reducing feelings of hopelessness, and learning prevention skills.

Person Centered therapy

Supports the belief of caring for an individual holistically
Empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard and acceptance

Successful drug and alcohol treatment incorporates cultural elements

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Community Resources

American Indian Student Services

University of Milwaukee (UWM)
http://www4.uwm.edu/aiss/

American Indian Chamber of Commerce of Wisconsin

http://www.aiccw.org

Indian council of the Elderly, Inc.

3126 W. Kilbourn Ave., Milwaukee WI
https://www.facebook.com/IndianCounciloftheElderly

Spotted Eagle Inc.

http://www.spottedeagle.us/wp-www/

SAM

>>As counselors, we may come across some individuals who need additional help or need basic needs need addressed
American Indian Student Services

Located at University of Milwaukee (UWM)
The program provides potential and currently enrolled students with personalized support services which will help them realize their educational goals and make their UWM experience a fulfilling one.

American Indian Chamber of Commerce of Wisconsin

This website provides all around support for these individuals.
This website has newsletters, job listings, financial support services, and community resources

Indian council of the Elderly, Inc.

Provides social services
It’s located off Kilbourn Ave., Milwaukee WI
They also have a facebook page for people to stay in touch and learn about upcoming events and opportunities

Spotted Eagle Inc.

Is for American Indian people living in southeastern Wisconsin
There goal is to help provide these individuals with the resources they need to collaboratively celebrate their respective cultural values while achieving economic, social and educational wellness within an off-reservation environment.

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References

Alaska Native Heritage Center (2015). Education and Programs: Cultures of Alaska. Retrieved from

http://www.alaskanative.net/en/main-nav/education-and-programs/cultures-of-alaska/

Alaska History and Cultural Studies (2015). Alaska’s Cultures. Retrieved from

http://akhistorycourse.org

Digital History. Dawes Act. ID 4029. Retrieved from: http://digitalhistory.uh.edu on April 16,

2016.

Iggiagruk. W. L. (2009). Fifty miles from tomorrow. New York: Picador.

Halverson. M.S. (n.d). Native American beliefs and medical treatments during the smallpox

epidemics: an evolution. Archiving Early America. 11 retrieved from http://earlyamerica.com

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References

History. (2016). Wounded Knee. A&E Television Network. Retrieved from

http://www.history.com

Native American Tourism of Wisconsin (2015). The History of NATOW. Retrieved from

http://natow.org/about-us-2/natow-history/

Phillips. Charles. (2005, December). Wounded knee massacre: United states versus the plain

Indians. American History. Retrieved from: http://www.historynet.com

Langdon, S.J. (1978). Alaska Native Communities on Harriman’s Route. Pbs.org

(2001). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/harriman/1899/Native

Remini. R. V. (2001, August). Indian removal act. American History. Retrieved from

http://www.historynet.com

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References

Sue, D.W., & Sue, D. (2013). Counseling the Culturally Diverse (6th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Tehee, M., & Esqueda, C. W. (2008). American indian and european american women's perceptions of

domestic violence. Journal of Family Violence, 23(1), 25-35. doi:http://dx.doi.org.mmu.ezproxy.switchinc.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9126-7

Wisconsin Department of Health Services (2015). American Indians in Wisconsin-Overview.

Retrieved from https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/minority-health/population/amind-pop.htm