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Chapter 19

Acids, Bases, and Salts

19.1 Acid-Base Theories

19.2 Hydrogen Ions and Acidity

19.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases

19.4 Neutralization Reactions

19.5 Salts in Solution

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Goldfish can live for 20 years or more in an aquarium if the conditions are right.

CHEMISTRY & YOU

What factors do you need to control so a fish has healthy water to live in?

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Hydrogen Ions from Water

How are [H⁺] and [OH⁻] related in an aqueous solution?

Hydrogen Ions from Water

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Water molecules are highly polar and are in constant motion, even at room temperature.

On occasion, the collisions between water molecules are energetic enough for a reaction to occur.

A water molecule that loses a hydrogen ion becomes a hydronium ion (H₃O⁺).
A water molecule that loses a hydrogen ion becomes a hydroxide ion (OH⁻).

Hydrogen Ions from Water

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Hydrogen Ions from Water

The reaction in which water molecules produce ions is called the self-ionization of water.

Self-Ionization of Water

In an aqueous solution, hydrogen ions are always joined to water molecules as hydronium ions.

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In pure water at 25°C, the concentration of hydrogen ions is only 1 × 10⁻⁷M.

The concentration of OH⁻ is also 1 × 10⁻⁷M because the numbers of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions are equal in pure water.
Any aqueous solution in which [H⁺] and [OH⁻] are equal is a neutral solution.

Hydrogen Ions from Water

Self-Ionization of Water

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The ionization of water is a reversible reaction, so Le Châtelier’s principle applies.

Adding either hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions to an aqueous solution is a stress on the system.
In response, the equilibrium will shift toward the formation of water.

Hydrogen Ions from Water

The concentration of the other ion will decrease.

Ion-Product Constant for Water

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The ionization of water is a reversible reaction, so Le Châtelier’s principle applies.

Hydrogen Ions from Water

In any aqueous solution, when [H⁺] increases, [OH⁻] decreases. Likewise, when [H⁺] decreases, [OH⁻] increases.

Ion-Product Constant for Water

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For aqueous solutions, the product of the hydrogen-ion concentration and the hydroxide-ion concentration equals 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴.

Hydrogen Ions from Water

[H⁺] + [OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

Ion-Product Constant for Water

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The product of the concentrations of the hydrogen ions and the hydroxide ions in water is called the ion-product constant for water (K_w).

Hydrogen Ions from Water

K_w = [H⁺] × [OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

Ion-Product Constant for Water

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Acidic Solutions

When some substances dissolve in water, they release hydrogen ions.

HCl(aq) → H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)

The hydrogen-ion concentration is greater than the hydroxide-ion concentration.
A solution in which [H⁺] is greater than [OH⁻] is an acidic solution.

Ion-Product Constant for Water

Hydrogen Ions from Water

The [H⁺] is greater than 1 × 10⁻⁷M.

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Basic Solutions

When sodium hydroxide dissolves in water, it forms hydroxide ions in solution.

NaOH(aq) → Na⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq)

The hydrogen-ion concentration is less than the hydroxide-ion concentration.
A basic solution is one in which [H+] is less than [OH−].

Basic solutions are also known as alkaline solutions.

Ion-Product Constant for Water

Hydrogen Ions from Water

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Sample Problem 19.2

Using the Ion-Product Constant for Water

If the [H⁺] in a solution is 1.0 × 10⁻⁵M, is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral? What is the [OH⁻] of this solution?

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KNOWNS

[H⁺] = 1.0 × 10⁻⁵M

K_w= 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

Analyze List the knowns and the unknowns.

1

UNKNOWNS

Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?

[OH⁻] = ?M

Use the expression for the ion-product constant for water and the known concentration of hydrogen ions to find the concentration of hydroxide ions.

Sample Problem 19.2

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Calculate Solve for the unknowns.

2

Use [H⁺] to determine whether the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.

[H⁺] is 1.0 × 10⁻⁵M, which is greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁷M.
Thus, the solution is acidic.

Sample Problem 19.2

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Calculate Solve for the unknowns.

2

Rearrange the expression for the ion-product constant to solve for [OH⁻].

K_w = [H⁺] × [OH⁻]

[OH⁻] =

K_w

[H⁺]

Sample Problem 19.2

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Calculate Solve for the unknowns.

2

Substitute the known values of [H⁺] and K_w. Then solve for [OH⁻].

= 1.0 × 10⁻⁹M

[OH⁻] =

1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

1.0 × 10⁻⁵

When you divide numbers written in scientific notation, subtract the exponent in the denominator from the exponent in the numerator.

Sample Problem 19.2

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Evaluate Does the result make sense?

3

If [H⁺] is greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁷M, then [OH⁻] must be less than 1.0 × 10⁻⁷M.
1.0 × 10⁻⁹M is less than 1.0 × 10⁻⁷M.
To check your calculation, multiply the values for [H⁺] and [OH⁻] to make sure that the result equals 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴.

Sample Problem 19.2

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A solution does not have an equal number of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions. What do you know about this solution?

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A solution does not have an equal number of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions. What do you know about this solution?

You know that the solution is not neutral. Without knowing more information, you cannot say if it is acidic or basic (alkaline).

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The pH Concept

How is pH used to classify a solution as neutral, acidic, or basic?

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The pH Concept

Expressing hydrogen-ion concentration in molarity is not practical. A more widely used system for expressing [H⁺] is the pH scale.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

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The pH Concept

The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration.

Hydrogen Ions and pH

pH = −log[H⁺]

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The pH Concept

In pure water or a neutral solution, the [H⁺] = 1 × 10⁻⁷M, and the pH is 7.

pH = −log(1 × 10⁻⁷)

= −(log 1 + log 10⁻⁷)

= −(0.0 + (−7.0)) = 7.0

Hydrogen Ions and pH

If the [H⁺] of a solution is greater than 1× 10⁻⁷M, the pH is less than 7.0.
If the [H⁺] is less than 1× 10⁻⁷M, the pH is greater than 7.0.

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The pH Concept

Hydrogen Ions and pH

A solution with a pH less than 7.0 is acidic.

A solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral.

A solution with a pH greater than 7.0 is basic.

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Hydrogen Ions and pH

When [H⁺] is given in the format 1 × 10^–ⁿ, it’s easy to find the pH. It’s just the absolute value of the exponent n. Also, note that [H⁺] × [OH^–] always equals 1 × 10^–14.

Interpret Data

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CHEMISTRY & YOU

In an aquarium, the pH of water is another factor that affects the ability of fish to survive. Most freshwater fish need a slightly acidic or neutral pH. For a saltwater tank, the ideal pH is slightly basic. What might explain this difference in the ideal pH range?

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Natural freshwater is slightly acidic, while natural saltwater typically contains compounds that make it slightly basic. Fish have adapted to these conditions in the wild and need them replicated in their tanks.

CHEMISTRY & YOU

In an aquarium, the pH of water is another factor that affects the ability of fish to survive. Most freshwater fish need a slightly acidic or neutral pH. For a saltwater tank, the ideal pH is slightly basic. What might explain this difference in the ideal pH range?

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The pH Concept

Expressing [H⁺] in scientific notation can make it easier to calculate pH.

You would rewrite 0.0010M as 1.0 × 10⁻³M.

The coefficient 1.0 has two significant figures.

The pH for this solution is 3.00.

The two numbers to the right of the decimal point represent the two significant figures in the concentration.

Calculating pH from [H⁺]

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The pH Concept

It is easy to find the pH for solutions when the coefficient is 1.0.

The pH of the solution equals the exponent, with the sign changed from minus to plus.

A solution with [H⁺] = 1 × 10⁻²M has a pH of 2.0.

When the coefficient is a number other than 1, you will need to use a calculator with a log function key to calculate pH.

Calculating pH from [H⁺]

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Sample Problem 19.3

Calculating pH from [H⁺]

What is the pH of a solution with a hydrogen-ion concentration of 4.2 × 10⁻¹⁰M?

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KNOWN

[H⁺] = 4.2 × 10⁻¹⁰M

Analyze List the known and the unknown.

1

UNKNOWN

pH = ?

To find the pH from the hydrogen-ion concentration, you use the equation pH = −log[H⁺].

Sample Problem 19.3

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Start with the equation for finding pH from [H⁺].

pH = −log[H⁺]

Sample Problem 19.3

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Substitute the known [H⁺] and use the log function on your calculator to calculate the pH.

pH = −log(4.2 × 10⁻¹⁰)

= −(−9.37675)

= 9.37675

= 9.38

Round the pH to two decimal places because the hydrogen-ion concentration has two significant figures.

Sample Problem 19.3

Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

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Evaluate Does the result make sense?

3

The value of the hydrogen-ion concentration is between 1 × 10⁻⁹M and 1 × 10⁻¹⁰M.
So, the calculated pH should be between 9 and 10, which it is.

Sample Problem 19.3

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The pH Concept

You can calculate the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution if you know the pH.

If the pH is an integer, it is easy to find [H⁺].

For a pH of 9.0, [H⁺] = 1 × 10⁻⁹M.

Most pH values are not whole numbers.

When the pH value is not a whole number, you will need a calculator with an antilog (10^x) function to get an accurate value for the hydrogen-ion concentration.

Calculating [H⁺] from pH

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Sample Problem 19.4

Calculating [H⁺] from pH

The pH of an unknown solution is 6.35. What is the hydrogen-ion concentration of the solution?

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KNOWN

pH = 6.35

Analyze List the known and the unknown.

1

UNKNOWN

[H⁺] = ?M

You will use the antilog function of your calculator to find the concentration.

Sample Problem 19.4

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

First, simply swap the sides of the equation for finding pH and substitute the known value.

pH = −log[H⁺]

−log[H⁺] = pH

−log[H⁺] = 6.35

Sample Problem 19.4

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Change the signs on both sides of the equation and then solve for the unknown.

log[H⁺] = −6.35

[H⁺] = antilog(−6.35)

Sample Problem 19.4

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Use the antilog (10^x) function on your calculator to find [H⁺]. Report the answer in scientific notation.

[H⁺] = 4.5 × 10⁻⁷

On most calculators, use the 2^nd or INV key followed by log to get the antilog.

Sample Problem 19.4

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Evaluate Does the result make sense?

3

The pH is between 6 and 7.
So, the hydrogen-ion concentration must be between 1 × 10⁻⁶M and 1 × 10⁻⁷M.
The answer is rounded to two significant figures because the pH was measured to two decimal places.

Sample Problem 19.4

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The pH Concept

If you know the [OH⁻] of a solution, you can find its pH.

You can use the ion-product constant to determine [H⁺] for a known [OH⁻].
Then you use [H⁺] to calculate the pH.

Calculating pH from [OH⁻]

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Calculating pH from [OH⁻]

What is the pH of a solution if [OH⁻] = 4.0 × 10⁻¹¹M?

Sample Problem 19.5

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KNOWNS

[OH⁻] = 4.0 × 10⁻¹¹M�K_w = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

1

UNKNOWN

pH= ?

To find [H⁺], divide K_w by the known �[OH⁻].
Then calculate pH as you did in Sample Problem 19.3.

Sample Problem 19.5

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Start with the ion-product constant to find [H⁺].
Rearrange the equation to solve for [H⁺].

K_w = [OH⁻] × [H⁺]

[H⁺] =

K_w

[OH⁻]

Sample Problem 19.5

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Substitute the values for K_w and [OH⁻] to find [H⁺].

[H⁺] =

1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴

4.0 × 10⁻¹¹

= 0.25 × 10⁻³M

= 2.5 × 10⁻⁴M

Sample Problem 19.5

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Calculate Solve for the unknown.

2

Next use the equation for finding pH.
Substitute the value for [H⁺].

pH = −log[H⁺]

= −log(2.5 × 10⁻⁴)

Sample Problem 19.5

Use a calculator to find the log.

= −(−3.60205)

= 3.60

Round the pH to two decimal places because the [OH⁻] has two significant figures.

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Evaluate Does the result make sense?

3

A solution in which [OH⁻] is less than 1 × 10⁻⁷M is acidic because [H⁺] is greater than 1 × 10⁻⁷M.
The hydrogen-ion concentration is between 1 × 10⁻³M and 1 × 10⁻⁴M.
Thus, the pH should be between 3 and 4.

Sample Problem 19.5

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Why do we use the pH scale to express hydrogen-ion concentration?

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Why do we use the pH scale to express hydrogen-ion concentration?

It is more convenient and practical to use the pH scale. Expressing hydrogen-ion concentration in molarity takes up a lot of space and is not as easy to work with.

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Measuring pH

What are two methods that are used to measure pH?

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Measuring pH

Either acid-base indicators or pH meters can be used to measure pH.

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Measuring pH

An indicator (HIn) is an acid or a base that dissociates in a known pH range.

Indicators work because their acid form and base form have different colors in solution.

Acid-Base Indicators

The acid form of the indicator (HIn) is dominant at low pH and high [H⁺].
The base form (In⁻) is dominant at high pH and high [OH⁻].

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Measuring pH

Acid-Base Indicators

At all pH values below the range, you would see only the color of the acid form.
At all pH values above this range, you would see only the color of the base form.

The change from dominating acid form to dominating base form occurs within a narrow range of about two pH units.

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Acid-Base Indicators

Interpret Graphs

Many indicators are needed to span the entire pH spectrum.

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Measuring pH

An indicator strip is a piece of paper or plastic that has been soaked in an indicator and then dried.

The paper is dipped into an unknown solution.
The color that results is compared with a color chart to measure the pH.
Some indicator paper has absorbed multiple indicators.

Acid-Base Indicators

The colors that result will cover a wide range of pH values.

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Measuring pH

Soil pH can affect how plants develop.

Acid-Base Indicators

In acidic soils, hydrangeas produce blue flowers.

In basic soils, hydrangeas produce pink flowers.

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Measuring pH

A pH meter is used to make rapid, continuous measurements of pH.

The measurements of pH obtained with a pH meter are typically accurate to within 0.01 pH unit of the true pH.
If the pH meter is connected to a computer or chart recorder, the user will have a record of the pH changes.

pH Meters

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Measuring pH

A pH meter can be easier to use than liquid indicators or indicator strips.

pH Meters

The pH reading is visible in a display window on the meter.

The color and cloudiness of the solution do not affect the accuracy of the pH value obtained.

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You’re planting a garden and want to know the approximate pH of your soil. What method should you use?

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You’re planting a garden and want to know the approximate pH of your soil. What method should you use?

While you could use a pH meter and have a very accurate reading of your soil’s pH, it is also OK to approximate the pH using a pH indicator strip.

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Key Concepts

For aqueous solutions, the product of the hydrogen-ion concentration and the hydroxide-ion concentration equals 1 × 10^–14.

A solution with a pH less than 7.0 is acidic. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral. A solution with a pH greater than 7.0 is basic.

Either acid-base indicators or pH meters can be used to measure pH.

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Glossary Terms

self-ionization: a term describing the reaction in which two water molecules react to produce ions
neutral solution: an aqueous solution in which the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are equal; it has a pH of 7.0
ion-product constant for water (K_w): the product of the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in water; it is 1 × 10^–14 at 25°C

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Glossary Terms

acidic solution: any solution in which the hydrogen-ion concentration is greater than the hydroxide-ion concentration
basic solution: any solution in which the hydroxide-ion concentration is greater than the hydrogen-ion concentration
pH: a number used to denote the hydrogen-ion concentration, or acidity, of a solution; it is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution

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The pH of a solution reflects the hydrogen-ion concentration.

BIG IDEA

Reactions

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END OF 19.2

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