LESSON 1

AOPA Pinch Hitter Course

OBJECTIVES

• Lean how to be more than just a participant when flying as a passenger in light aircraft
• Helping the pilot with basic in-flight tasks:
• Navigation
• Traffic Scanning
• Radio Communications
• Possibly Some Flying
• Using Knowledge to assist with the pilot decision making
• Learning how to find an airport and land safely in the unlikely even of pilot incapacitation

PART 61 PILOT CERTIFICATIONS

1. Student Pilot
• Entry-level certificate allowing solo flight under instructor supervision
• Requires a medical certificate and endorsement from a flight instructor
2. Private Pilot (PPL)
• Allows non-commercial flight with passengers
• Requires at least 40 flight hours, including 20 hours with an instructor and 10 hours solo
• Must pass a knowledge test and checkride
3. Commercial Pilot (CPL)
• Allows pilots to be compensated for flying (under certain conditions)
• Requires a minimum of 250 flight hours, including 100 hours at PIC and 50 hours cross-country
• More stringent training in aeronautical knowledge and flight proficiency
4. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP)
• Required for captains in part 121 airline operations
• Minimum of 1500 flight hours, including 500 cross-country, 100 hours night, 75 hours instrument
• Requires an ATP knowledge test and a checkride

PART 61 RATINGS

• Instrument Rating (IR): Allows flight in low-visibility conditions under IFR
• Multi-Engine Rating (ME): Required to operate aircraft with more than one engine
• Certified Flight Instructor (CFI): Allows pilots to teach students for PPL, CPL, and IR (if CFII)

MEDICAL STANDARDS

1^st Class

• Required for ATP

2^ND Class

• Required for CPL

3^rd Class

• Required for PPL

Basic Med

BASIC MED

What is it?

• A Pilot can exercise student, recreational, and private pilot privileges in small aircraft without holding a current medical certificate

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What do you need to fly?

• US Drivers license
• Hold or have held an FAA Medical Certificate after July 14, 2006
• Physical exam through state-licensed physician (48 calendar months)
• Basic Med online course (24 calendar months)
• Fill out a comprehensive medical examination checklist

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Privileges & Limitations:

• Fly with no more than 7 occupants
• Fly an aircraft with a max takeoff weight of 12,500lbs
• Fly in the US under 250knots and below 18,000’ MSL
• May not fly for compensation or hire (but you can act as CFI)

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RULES OF THE ROAD

Pilot in Command (PIC)

• The pilot responsible for the safety and operation of the aircraft.
• Holds final authority over all decisions regarding the flight.
• Must ensure compliance with all FAA regulations and procedures.
• Can be held accountable for any rule violations or mishaps.

Emergency Authority of the Pilot

• The PIC has the authority to deviate from any regulation to ensure safety in an emergency. (FAR 91.3(b))
• Must prioritize protecting passengers, crew, and the aircraft.
• Required to submit a report to the FAA upon request if deviations occur.

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RULES OF THE ROAD

Right of Way Rules (FAR 91.113)

• General Rule: The aircraft that has the right of way must be yielded to.
• Aircraft in Distress: Always has the right of way over all other aircraft.
• Converging Aircraft (Same Category): The aircraft on the right has the right of way.
• Head-on Approach: Both aircraft should alter course to the right.
• Overtaking: The aircraft being overtaken has the right of way; the overtaking aircraft must pass to the right.
• Landing Aircraft: The aircraft at a lower altitude has the right of way if two or more are approaching to land.

See-and-Avoid Concept (FAR 91.113(b))

• PIC must visually scan for traffic to avoid collisions.
• Applies to both VFR and IFR flights.
• Must not rely solely on ATC—pilots are ultimately responsible for avoiding other aircraft.
• Use scanning techniques – 10° sections

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RULES OF THE ROAD

VFR and IFR Altitude Rules

• VFR Cruising Altitudes (FAR 91.159) (Above 3,000 ft AGL)
• 0°-179° (Eastbound): Odd-thousand + 500 ft (e.g., 3,500 ft, 5,500 ft)
• 180°-359° (Westbound): Even-thousand + 500 ft (e.g., 4,500 ft, 6,500 ft)
• IFR Cruising Altitudes (FAR 91.179) (Controlled airspace)
• 0°-179° (Eastbound): Odd-thousand feet (e.g., 3,000 ft, 5,000 ft)
• 180°-359° (Westbound): Even-thousand feet (e.g., 4,000 ft, 6,000 ft)
• East is Least (odd), West is Best (Even)

WEATHER THEORY

Importance of Weather to Pilots

• Impacts flight safety, performance, and fuel planning.
• Determines visibility, turbulence, and aircraft handling.
• Affects takeoff, landing, and en-route conditions.
• Understanding weather reduces risks of thunderstorms, icing, and wind shear.

Basic Weather Theory

• Air Masses
• Large bodies of air with uniform temperature and moisture.
• Classified as continental (dry), maritime (moist), polar (cold), tropical (warm).
• Air masses interact to create frontal systems (cold, warm, stationary, occluded).
• Highs and Lows
• High-Pressure System: Stable, dry weather with light winds; air descends and moves clockwise (NH).
• Low-Pressure System: Unstable, stormy weather; air rises and moves counterclockwise (NH).

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WEATHER THEORY

• Wind Flow and Direction
• Winds flow parallel to isobars at altitude and across isobars at the surface due to friction.
• Coriolis Effect causes wind deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
• High pressure will always move to low pressure 🡪 creates wind
• Weather Associated with Pressure Systems
• Cold Front: Moves fast, brings thunderstorms, turbulence, and gusty winds.
• Warm Front: Moves slowly, brings steady rain, fog, and lower ceilings.
• Stationary Front: Little movement; prolonged precipitation and cloud cover.
• Occluded Front: Combination of cold and warm front effects; heavy precipitation.

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WEATHER THEORY

Sources of Weather Information

• Internet, News, TV
• General weather outlook, radar, and forecasts.
• Not sufficient for flight planning; lacks aviation-specific details.
• Official Weather Briefings (FAA-approved sources)
• Flight Service Station (FSS): Provides standard, outlook, and abbreviated briefings.
• 1800WXBRIEF: Online access to official aviation weather.
• ATIS, AWOS, ASOS: Real-time airport weather updates.
• Reports and Forecasts (Aviation-specific weather products)
• METAR: Current weather observations (updated hourly).
• TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast): 24-30 hour airport weather predictions.
• PIREPs (Pilot Reports): Real-time weather conditions from other pilots.
• AIRMETs & SIGMETs: Weather advisories for IFR conditions, turbulence, icing, and storms.

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WEATHER THEORY

Understanding the Weather Map

• Isobars: Lines connecting areas of equal pressure (closer lines = stronger winds).
• Cold Fronts: Blue triangles indicating movement direction.
• Warm Fronts: Red semicircles showing movement.
• Occluded Fronts: Purple line with alternating triangles and semicircles.
• Stationary Fronts: Alternating red and blue with no movement.
• Radar & Satellite Imagery: Shows precipitation intensity, cloud cover, and storm development.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIGHT AND AIRCRAFT CONTROL

Aviate, Navigate, Communicate

• Aviate: First priority—fly the aircraft and maintain control.
• Navigate: Know where you are and where you're going.
• Communicate: Talk to ATC, other aircraft, or passengers as needed.

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HOW THE CONTROLS WORK

Fore/Aft Yoke Movement (Pitch Control)

• Pull back on the yoke → Nose goes up, airspeed decreases, altitude increases.
• Push forward on the yoke → Nose goes down, airspeed increases, altitude decreases.

Side-to-Side Yoke Movement (Roll Control)

• Turn yoke left → Left aileron goes up, right aileron goes down, aircraft banks left.
• Turn yoke right → Right aileron goes up, left aileron goes down, aircraft banks right.

Rudder Pedals (Yaw Control & Ground Steering)

• Press left pedal → Nose yaws left.
• Press right pedal → Nose yaws right.
• Used for turn coordination in flight and for steering on the ground.

Elevator Trim (Relieving Control Pressure)

• Adjusts the elevator's neutral position to reduce yoke pressure.
• Used to maintain steady pitch attitude without constant yoke input.

Throttle Movement & Engine Power

• Increase throttle → More power, higher speed, potential climb.
• Decrease throttle → Less power, lower speed, potential descent.

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INSTRUMENTS

Magnetic Compass & Heading Indicator

• Magnetic Compass: Shows aircraft heading but is subject to errors (lag, acceleration/deceleration effects).
• Heading Indicator: More stable, requires periodic adjustment to match the compass.
• Cardinal Headings:
• North (360°), East (090°), South (180°), West (270°).
• Turning to Headings:
• Standard rate turn = ~3° per second (~2 minutes for 360°).

Airspeed Indicator & Color Code

• White Arc: Flap operating range.
• Green Arc: Normal operating range.
• Yellow Arc: Caution range (only in smooth air).
• Red Line: Never exceed speed (V_NE).

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INSTRUMENTS

Altimeter

• Displays altitude above mean sea level (MSL).
• Read from bottom to top:
• Short hand = 10,000s feet
• Middle hand = 1,000s feet
• Long hand = 100s feet

Tachometer & Manifold Pressure Gauges

• Tachometer (RPM): Indicates engine speed in piston aircraft.
• Both relate directly to throttle position and power settings.

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FLIGHT FUNDAMENTALS

Straight & Level Flight

• Maintain a constant altitude and airspeed.
• Aircraft attitude: Nose position relative to the horizon.
• Trim adjustments help reduce control input.

Shallow Turns (Right Seat Perspective)

• Bank angle ≤ 20°.
• Horizon tilts slightly in direction of turn.
• From the right seat: The left wing moves higher in a left turn, lower in a right turn.

Climbs & Descents

• Climb: Increase power → Nose up → Airspeed decreases → Altitude increases.
• Descent: Decrease power → Nose down → Airspeed increases → Altitude decreases.
• Attitude changes: Power controls altitude trend; pitch controls airspeed.

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QUIZ

WHAT IS THE CORRECT ORDER OF PRIORITIES FOR A PIC?

1. Communicate, Aviate, Navigate
2. Aviate, Communicate, Navigate
3. Navigate, Aviate, Communicate
4. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate

WHEN MAKING A STANDARD RATE TURN TO A HEADING OF 180° FROM A HEADING OF 090°, HOW LONG SHOULD THE TURN TAKE?

1. 10 seconds
2. 20 seconds
3. 30 seconds
4. 60 seconds

WHAT IS THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF THE ELEVATOR TRIM?

1. To assist with coordinated turns
2. To relieve control pressure and maintain pitch attitude
3. To control engine power output
4. To stabilize the aircraft in turbulence

IF YOU ARE FLYING AT 6,500 FEET UNDER VFR CONDITIONS ON A HEADING OF 270°, WHAT ALTITUDE SHOULD YOU BE AT TO COMPLY WITH CRUISING ALTITUDE RULES?

1. 6,500 feet
2. 7,500 feet
3. 8,500 feet
4. 9,500 feet

WHICH COLOR ARC ON THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR REPRESENTS THE NORMAL OPERATING RANGE?

1. White
2. Green
3. Yellow
4. Red

WHICH TYPE OF WEATHER SYSTEM IS TYPICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH CLEAR SKIES AND STABLE AIR?

1. Low-pressure system
2. High-pressure system
3. Occluded front
4. Stationary front

WHAT IS THE “SEE-AND-AVOID” CONCEPT IN FLIGHT?

1. Using only ATC instructions to avoid collisions
2. A method of relying on radar for separation
3. Pilots visually scanning for traffic to prevent midair collisions
4. Looking outside only in controlled airspace

UNDER PART 61, WHICH CERTIFICATE ALLOWS A PILOT TO ACT AS PIC FOR COMPENSATION OF HIRE?

1. Private Pilot Certificate
2. Commercial Pilot Certificate
3. Recreational Pilot Certificate
4. Sport Pilot Certificate

IN THE EVENT OF AN EMERGENCY, THE PILOT IN COMMAND HAS THE AUTHORITY TO:

1. Defer to air traffic control for all decisions
2. Follow standard operating procedures without deviation
3. Deviate from any regulation to ensure flight safety
4. Wait for airline dispatch approval before acting

WHEN READING A METAR REPORT, WHAT DOES “OVC010” INDICATE?

1. Overcast clouds at 100 feet AGL
2. Overcast clouds at 1,000 feet AGL
3. Overcast clouds at 10,000 feet AGL
4. A thunderstorm at 1,000 feet

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Challenge Question