1 of 19

Reading and Evaluating Arguments (RI 10.8)

“Read and evaluate agruments and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is valid and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; identify false statements and fallacious reasoning.”

​

K. Mayfield’s PPT

2 of 19

  • The critical reader must be able to evaluate arguments.

​

  • When you evaluate an argument (a set of claims), you determine its value or persuasiveness.

An argument presents logical reasons

and evidence to support a viewpoint

3 of 19

Parts of an Argument

  • CLAIM - the position on the issue
  • WARRANT - support and evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted
  • IMPACT – why it matters
  • *REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints

4 of 19

Types of Claims

  • CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research
  • “Within ten years, destruction of rainforests will cause hundreds of plant and animal species to become extinct.”

5 of 19

Types of Claims

  • CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another.
  • “Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.”

6 of 19

Types of Claims

  • CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem.
  • “To reduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be installed in public schools.”

7 of 19

Types of Support

  • REASON - a general statement that supports a claim.
  • EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid.
  • EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about.

8 of 19

Inductive and Deductive Arguments

  • INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics.
  • “By observing the performance of a large number of athletes, you could conclude that athletes possess physical stamina.”

​

9 of 19

Inductive and Deductive Arguments

​

  • DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise.
  • “Athletes possess physical stamina. Because Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical stamina.”

10 of 19

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

  • Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it sufficient to support the claim?
  • Personal Experience - may be biased, so do not accept it
  • Examples - should not be used by themselves

11 of 19

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

  • Statistics - can be misused, manipulated or misinterpreted.
  • Comparisons and Analogies - reliability depends on how closely they correspond to the situation.
  • Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is there enough of the right kind to support the claim?

12 of 19

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

  • Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
    • Question the accuracy, relevance or sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
    • Does the author address opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly?
    • Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint with logic and relevant evidence?

13 of 19

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

  • Unfair Emotional Appeals
    • Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
    • False Authority
      • athletes endorsing underwear
      • movie stars selling shampoo
    • Association
      • a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a sleek animal
      • a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic waterfall

14 of 19

Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

  • Unfair Emotional Appeals
    • Appeal to “Common Folk”
      • an ad showing a product being used in an average household
      • a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
    • Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather than his/her viewpoint
    • “Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon

15 of 19

What emotional appeal is being used?

  • Come early so you won’t have to stand in line – because everyone knows you can make a deal with Dave and save.

​

  • As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance. “That’s why I drive a Mustang,” she says.

​

  • Olson’s pizzas are lower in fat and calories. Other pizza makers don’t care about your health.

16 of 19

Emotional appeals continued…

  • “We can work magic with your children,” says Eileen of Eileen’s Day Care. “Call upon us, and your children will be happy you did.”

​

  • Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this great land, from sea to shining sea.

​

  • As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned what it means to work hard by spending long hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in a department store.

17 of 19

Errors in Logical Reasoning�commonly called logical fallacies�invalidate the argument or render argument flawed

  • Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
    • “Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man’s job.”
  • Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived from insufficient evidence
    • “Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour.”

18 of 19

Errors in Logical Reasoning

  • Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”)
    • “Because my doctor is young, I’m sure she’ll be a good doctor.”
  • False Cause
    • “Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip.”
  • Either-Or Fallacy
    • “Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned.”

19 of 19

Step 1: Identify the Author’s Assumptions�Step 2: Identify the Types of Support�Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support�Step 4: Determine the Author’s Objectivity�Step 5: Determine the Argument’s Completeness�Step 6: Determine if the Argument Is Valid & Credible

Chapter 11: Evaluating an Author's Argument

19

© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Analyzing an Argument