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Title:Data Storage AND data manipulation

MODULE:2

CO addressed: CO1

Course: Essentials of IT

Presented by: PREMA C R

Department: CSE

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Chapter 2 :Data Manipulation

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  • The CPU and main memory communicate through a set of wires called a bus, which transfers data and addresses between them.
  • The CPU reads data from memory by sending the cell address and a read signal,
  • CPU writes data by providing the address, data, and a write signal.

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Stored-Program Concept

  • Early computers were inflexible because their operations were hardwired into the control unit, and changing tasks required physically rewiring the machine, often using a pegboard system.

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  • The stored-program concept revolutionized this by realizing that a program, like data, can be stored in main memory.

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  • If the CPU is designed to fetch, decode, and execute instructions from memory,

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  • The program can be changed simply by modifying memory contents, without rewiring the CPU.

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Machine Language

  • CPUs are designed to recognize instructions encoded as bit patterns. This collection of instructions along with the encoding system is called the machine language.
  • An instruction expressed in this language is called a machine level instruction or, more commonly, a machine instruction.
  • Two Architectures:

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CISC

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RISC Comparision

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Categories of Machine Instructions

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Arithmetic/Logic Instructions

  • The Arithmetic/Logic group consists of instructions that direct the Control Unit (CU) to initiate operations within the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
  • The ALU performs two main types of operations:
  • Arithmetic Operations
  • Logical and Bitwise Operations

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3.Control Instructions

  • The Control group contains instructions that manage program execution flow, rather than performing operations on data.
  • To implement decision-making, loops, and conditional branching in programs.

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Example: JUMP Step5

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Structure of Machine Instruction

  • Each of these instructions is encoded using a total of 16 bits
  • op-code for each instruction consists of the first 4 bits->Specifies which operation to perform (like ADD, STORE, JUMP, etc.)

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  • Operand field will be 12 bits->Provides details like which registers or memory addresses are involved.

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Encoded instruction: 242B

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Program Execution

Two registers are used mainly

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Step 3: Execute

The CPU performs the operation specified by the op-code.

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Arithmetic/Logic Instructions

  • Bitwise logical operations (AND and OR ,XOR) can be used for masking, i.e., selecting or modifying specific bits in a binary pattern.

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  • EX:AND Masking used to make unwanted bits in results as “0’s”

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Masking in Image Processing:

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Checking if the 3 rd bit is 1 or not by using Mask as:00100000 �

Mask:11011111

OR Operation

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AND → to test or clear bits (because 0 clears bits).�OR → to set bits (because 1 forces bits ON).�

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XOR

  • Forming the complement (bit inversion)

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Rotation and Shift Operations

Ex:5X2=10

0101🡪5 left shift 1010==10 in binary

Ex:6/2=3

6->0110->right shift

0011==3 in binary

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Rotation:

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In particular, if register 5 originally contained the bit pattern 65 (hexadecimal), then it would contain B2 after this instruction is executed

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Communicating with Other Devices

  • Main memory and the CPU form the core of a computer.�Peripheral devices such as keyboards, printers, monitors, disks, cameras, and other computers communicate with this core through special hardware and techniques.

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Direct Memory Access (DMA)

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Handshaking

The CPU or controller checks these bits before sending more data.

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Popular Communication Media

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