Hardware: The CPU & Storage

Chapter 4

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Chapter Topics

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UNIT 4A: Processing: The System Unit, Microprocessors, & Main Memory

4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility

4.2 Representing Data Electronically

4.3 Inside the System Unit: Power Supply, Motherboard, & Microprocessors

4.4 The Central Processing Unit & the Machine Cycle

4.5 Memory

4.6 Expansion Cards, Bus Lines, & Ports

UNIT 4B: Secondary Storage

4.7 Secondary Storage

4.8 Future Developments in Processing & Storage

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UNIT 4A: Processing: The System Unit, Microprocessors, & Main Memory

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• Electronic circuitry has remained basically the same over recent years.
• A circuit is a closed path followed or capable of being followed by an electric current.
• Vacuum tubes used wire circuits inside them to facilitate the flow of electrons.
• Transistors have replaced vacuum tubes.

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4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, �& Mobility

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The Since the early 1970s, microchips have gotten smaller and smaller yet more and more powerful and faster.

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• A transistor is a tiny electronic switch that can be turned “on” or “off” millions of times per second.
• Transistors form part of an integrated circuit: all the parts of an electronic circuit embedded on a single silicon chip.
• Integrated circuits are solid state (no moving parts).

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• Silicon: A semiconductor made of clay and sand.
• Semiconductor: A material whose electrical properties are intermediate between a good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity.
• Perfect underlayer for highly conductive,

complex circuits.

• Microchips (Microprocessors) are made

from semiconductors.

• Chip: A tiny piece of silicon that contains

millions of microminiature integrated

electronic circuits.

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Chip

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• Miniaturization
• Microchips
• Store and process data in electronic devices
• Microprocessors
• The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor (“brain”) on a single chip
• Contains the central processing unit (CPU), which processes data into information
• The development of microchips and processors has enabled the development of small, mobile electronic devices.

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• System Unit
• The case that contains the computer’s electronic components used to process data.
• PCs: Tower or desktop; monitor is separate.
• Laptops: Monitor is attached to the system unit, like a clamshell.
• Tablets: Usually includes a touch-screen interface.
• Smartphones: Handheld system units.

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4.2 Representing Data Electronically

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Binary System: the basic data-representation method for computers uses just two numbers: 0 and 1, representing the off/on states of electricity or light pulses.

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Data is represented in a computer by binary code.

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All data and program instructions in the computer are represented as binary.

• Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit
• Byte: a group of 8 bits = 1 character, digit, or other value
• Kilobyte (KB): 1,000 (1,024) bytes
• Megabyte (MB): 1 million (1,048,576) bytes
• Gigabyte (GB): 1 billion (1,073,741,824) bytes
• Terabyte (TB): 1 trillion (1,009,511,627,776) bytes
• Petabyte (PB): 1 quadrillion bytes
• Exabyte (EB): 1 quintillion bytes

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Measuring Capacity

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• Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each character.
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version
• 8-bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters
• Commonly used for microcomputers
• Unicode
• Requires 16 bits per character
• Handles 65,536 characters—used for Chinese and Japanese
• EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
• Requires 8 bits per character
• Used for IBM mainframes

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• Machine Language: The computer’s “native language”
• A binary-type programming language (0s and 1s) built into the CPU that is run directly by the computer.
• Each CPU type has its own machine language; thus each computer’s machine language is brand-dependent.
• Language Translators: The computer’s system software converts higher-level language instructions and data into machine language so that the processor can “understand” what to do.

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4.3 Inside the System Unit

Power Supply, Motherboard, & Microprocessors

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Terms

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Definitions

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Bay

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Power Supply

Surge Protector

UPS

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Motherboard

Microprocessor

Chipset

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Opening in the computer cabinet used for the installation of electrical equipment.

This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a limited time when there is a blackout.

Main system board of the computer (also systemboard).

Miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.

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One View of a Motherboard

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Another View of a Motherboard

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A Mac motherboard

Hard drive

Expansion cards

Motherboard

CD drive

Power supply

RAM slots

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• Traditional microcomputer microprocessors are Intel and AMD.
• Multicore processors (2, 4, 6, 8) have more than one

processor “core” on a single silicon chip, which

allows computers to run faster.

• Special processors are made for portable devices.
• A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized processor used to manipulate three-dimensional (3-D) computer graphics.

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Processing Speeds

• Every microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls how fast all the operations within a computer take place (the chip’s processing speed).
• Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz.
• 1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
• Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz.
• 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
• The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates.

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4.4 The Central Processing Unit & the Machine Cycle

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• The CPU, for central processing unit, is the “brain” of the computer; it follows the instructions of the software (program) to manipulate data into information.
• The CPU consists of two parts—(1) the control unit and (2) the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), both of which contain registers, or high-speed storage areas.
• All are linked by a kind of electronic “roadway” called a bus.

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• The control unit deciphers each instruction stored in the CPU and then carries out the instruction. It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit. It also directs these electronic signals between main memory and the input and output devices.
• For every instruction, the control unit carries out four basic operations, known as the machine cycle. In the machine cycle, the CPU (1) fetches an instruction, (2) decodes the instruction, (3) executes the instruction, and (4) stores the result (see next slide)..

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Each time the central processing unit executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The complete series of steps is called a machine cycle.

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• The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations and logical operations and controls the speed of those operations.
• Arithmetic operations are the fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Logical operations are comparisons--the ALU compares two pieces of data to see whether one is equal to ( = ), greater than (>), greater than or equal to ( >= ), less than (<), less than or equal to ( <= ), or not equal to ( ≠ ) the other.

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• The control unit and the ALU also use registers, special CPU areas that enhance the computer’s performance.
• Registers are high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing. They may store a program instruction while it is being decoded, store data while it is being processed by the ALU, or store the results of a calculation.
• All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.
• The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine the power and speed of a CPU.

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• Buses are electrical data “roadways” through which bits are transmitted within the CPU and between the CPU and other components of the motherboard.
• In most computers, the bus width is the same as the computer’s word size, the number of bits that the processor can process at any one time. The more bits in a word, usually the faster the computer. A 32-bit-word computer will transfer data within each microprocessor chip in 32-bit chunks. A 64-bit-word computer is faster, transferring data in 64-bit chunks at a time. (Most, but not all, 32-bit software will run on a 64-bit system, but 64-bit software will not run on a 32-bit system.)

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4.5 Memory

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Memory

• Two type of storage: primary and secondary.
• Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this type of memory is temporary and volatile.
• Secondary storage = hard disks and flash memory units; this type of memory is relatively permanent and nonvolatile.

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Memory Chips

RAM

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ROM

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CMOS

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Flash

Explanation

Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

• Software instructions
• Data before & after the CPU processes it

Read Only Memory

• Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment
• Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-up instructions (BIOS), that tell the computer how to load the operating system

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

• Powered by a battery
• Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once

• Doesn’t require a battery
• Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

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Speeding up Processing: Cache

• The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must wait for information
• Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses frequently to speed up processing
• Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor
• Holds 8 to 128 KB
• Faster than Level 2 cache
• Level 2 cache is external cache
• Holds 64 kb to 16 MB
• Level 3 cache is on the motherboard
• Comes on very high-end computers
• Holds 2 to 8 MB

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• Virtual Memory—also used to speed up processing.
• This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD) space that the processor uses to extend the capacity of RAM.
• The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache, then RAM, then virtual memory.
• Each type of memory is slower than its predecessor.

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4.6 Expansion Cards, Bus Lines, & Ports

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Expansion cards plug into slots on the motherboard that are connected by buses to ports that the user can access.

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• Expansion cards are circuit boards that provide more memory or that control peripheral devices (for graphics, sound, video, network interface, wireless connection, etc.).
• Buses connect the expansion cards to ports.
• A port is a connecting socket or jack on the outside of the computer unit or device into which are plugged different kinds of cables that connect peripheral devices.

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Expansion Cards: If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion cards can be added; if the computer uses open architecture, expansion cards can be inserted in expansion slots inside the computer, connected to the motherboard.

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An expansion bus is not the same as the frontside bus:

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• Frontside bus: The bus that connects the CPU within itself and to main memory.
• Expansion bus: Buses that connect the CPU with expansion slots on the motherboard and thus via ports with peripheral devices.

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Types of expansion buses:

• PCI: High-speed bus that has been widely used to connect PC graphics cards, sound cards, modems, and high-speed network cards.
• PCI Express: Doubles the speed of the original PCI bus . PCIe is the latest standard for expansion cards available on mainstream personal computers.
• Accelerated Graphics: Transmits data at twice the speed of a PCI bus and is designed to support video and 3-D graphics.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB): Does away with the need to install cards in expansion slots. USB devices can connect one to another outside the system unit, and then the USB bus connects to the PCI bus on the motherboard.
• Firewire: Resembles the USB bus but is used for more specialized purposes, such as to connect audio and video equipment to the motherboard.

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Port Type

Serial port

Parallel port

USB port

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Description

Used to transmit data slowly over long distances

• Sends data sequentially, one bit at a time
• Used to connect older keyboards, mouse, monitors, dial-up modems

For transmitting data quickly over short distances

• Transmits 8 bytes simultaneously
• Connects printers, external disks, tape backups

Universal Serial Bus high-speed hardware standard for interfacing peripheral devices, such as scanners and printers, to computers without a need for special expansion cards or other hardware modifications to the computer. USB is replacing many varieties of serial and parallel ports.

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A port is a socket for some kind of plug, of which there are many types.

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Specialized Expansion Ports

Port Type

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• FireWire Intended for multiple devices working with lots of data and requiring fast transmission speeds, such as DVD drives, digital video cameras, and gaming consoles.
• Ethernet Supports a network standard for linking a wired local area network and connecting it to a DSL or a cable modem for high-speed Internet access.
• Graphics Connects digital monitors and multimedia digital devices, such as TVs and DVD players.
• eSATA External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment; allows the attachment of an eSATA hard disk, which has fast data transmission speeds.
• Bluetooth Connects devices that use short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 feet.
• IrDA Transfers data via infrared light waves between directly aligned devices, as between a smartphone and a desktop computer.
• HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface; carries both video and audio signals and is used for connecting HDTVs, DVD players, and game consoles to computers, laptops, and other devices.
• MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface; used to connect electronic musical instruments to a sound card that converts the signals to digital instructions that can be saved or manipulated.

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UNIT 4B:

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• Secondary storage hardware includes devices that permanently hold data and information as well as programs.
• Online, or cloud, storage is also available, but we still use secondary storage hardware.

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4.7 Secondary Storage

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Hard Disks: Still the major secondary-storage device for desktop/tower computers.

• Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots.
• The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity.
• Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.
• Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters.
• Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!
• Important data should always be backed up!

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read/write head

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• Hard Disks (continued)
• Hard Disk Types:
• Nonremovable hard disk – Also known as a fixed disk; is housed in the microcomputer system unit and is used to store nearly all programs and most data files. Usually consists of several metallic or glass platters, from 1 to 5.25 inches (most commonly 3.5 inches) in diameter, stacked on a spindle, with data stored on both sides. Read/write heads, one for each side of each platter, are mounted on an access arm that moves back and forth to the right location on the platter.
• External hard disk – Freestanding disk drive (portable); usually connected via USB.
• RAID – redundant array of independent disks; for large computer systems.

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• Optical Disks
• CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video disks) are optical disks.
• DVDs hold more data then CDs do.
• Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk read/write head.
• CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory; content is prerecorded.
• CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only once.
• CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk that can both record and erase data over and over again.

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• Optical Disks (continued)
• DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity.
• DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once.
• DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs.
• Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite, and play back high-definition (HD) video, as well as to store large amounts of data.

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Flash & Solid-State Storage

• Flash memory and solid-state memory have become the most important form of mobile secondary storage.
• Disk drives (hard disks or CDs/DVDs) all involve some moving parts—and moving parts can break. By contrast, flash memory has no moving parts; it is “solid state.” Flash memory is also nonvolatile—it retains data even when the power is turned off.
• Flash memory media are available in three forms:
• Some tablets, laptops, desktops, and servers feature a solid-state drive (SSD), which uses flash memory to store data, instructions ,and information.
• Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, are removable and reusable storage media that are inserted into a flash memory slot in a digital camera, notebook, smartphone, or other mobile device.
• A USB flash drive consists of a finger-size module of reusable flash memory that plugs into the USB ports of nearly any microcomputer.

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Smart Card: pocket-size card with integrated circuits.

• Resembles a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chips
• May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal information
• Storage capacity: around 10 MBs
• Contact smart cards
• Must be swiped through card readers
• Can wear out from use
• Contactless smart cards
• Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

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• Online Secondary Storage (Cloud Storage)
• Allows you to use the Internet to back up your data
• Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software and applications that allow you to upload your data to that company’s server

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4.8 Future Developments in Processing & Storage

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Using Information Technology, 11e

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Nanotechnology

Optical computing

DNA computing

Quantum computing

Better batteries

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Description of Processing Technology

• Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits
• Uses lasers and light, not electricity
• Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data
• Based on quantum mechanics and stores information using particle states
• Wireless charging of batteries, longer-lasting batteries

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Using Information Technology, 11e

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Future Developments in Secondary Storage

• Higher-density disks
• Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits vertically on the surface of a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)
• Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic level

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Using Information Technology, 11e

© 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. This proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.