Scientific Paper: �Skills of Writing

By

Khaled Elfayoumy, MD

Prof. Endocrinology

Al-Azhar University

• Science is the collection of observations made via well-defined procedures.

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• A research project has not contributed to science until it is reported in a paper.

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• As a contributing scientist, you must write scientific papers.

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SCIENTIFIC PAPER�

Scientific papers: �A Stereotyped Format

• Scientific papers have a stereotyped format in the form of:
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Materials and Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References

Scientific papers �A Single, Clear Direction

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The paper should point toward its Conclusion.�

• The writing will seem endless if you begin with the title and slog straight through to the last reference.
• This approach is difficult, wearing, and inefficient. �

• There is a much more effective way to write...�

The effective way to write

1. Materials and Methods�2. Results�3. Discussion�4. Conclusion�5. Introduction�6. Title and Abstract �

• Write your paper from the inside out.
• Begin with the all-important recipes, the Materials and Methods.
• Next, collect your data and draft the Results.
• List those few studying variables “key variables.” at the head of the drafts of the Results, Discussion, Title, and Abstract sections of your paper.
• Formulate the outlines of a Discussion. Then write a Conclusion.
• Now go back and write the historical context, the Introduction.
• Only after all else has been written and tidied up, will you have sufficient perspective to write the Title and the Abstract.

The Introduction�

• The introduction should set the study in context by briefly reviewing relevant knowledge of the subject.
• Follow this with a concise statement of the hypothesis and objectives of the study.
• The introduction should rarely exceed 3 pages of double-spaced text.

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• The Materials and Methods section is an instruction manual for all the things you have done to produce well-defined data (it should be comprehensive).
• This section includes:
• The type of study
• How the sample is representative
• Definition of each item in the Result section
• If well-established methods were used, give a reference to the technique and provide full details of any modifications.
• The source of chemicals and the manufacturer’s name.
• The type of equipment (microscopes/objective lenses, cameras, detectors) used to obtain images.
• It provides sufficient information for other workers to repeat the study. The core of a scientific article is the guarantee: “If you follow my recipe, then you will get my results.”

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Appendix

• It is a detailed explanation that is too long for the Materials and Methods section.
• An Appendix might contain a long recipe for a chemical preparation. It might explain a mathematical formula, detail a computer program or diagram the wiring of an apparatus. �

Statistical Analysis �

A statistical analysis takes the data pile and orders it and then offers numerical descriptions of the ordered data.

RESULTS �

• Ask yourself 3 questions:
• What did you search for and find?
• What did you search for and did not find?
• What did you incidentally find
• From the answers, reform ideas throughout: texts, tables and figures.
• Text
• provides context, and highlights the main findings or implications of the data
• Tables and Figures
• represent sizable numerical or statistical data in a time- and space-effective manner.
• present detailed results and complex relationships clearly and concisely
• reduce the length of the manuscript
• enhance readers’ understanding of the study results.
• Tables and figures must be cited in the text; avoid repeating information already shown in the figure or table (They are complementary).
• Number your tables and figures consecutively in the order of their text citations.

Tables

Data are presented as mean (±SD) or N⁰ (% within groups). BMI: body mass index (kg/m²); VAI: visceral adiposity index; HTN: hypertension; IGT: impaired glucose tolerance; DM: diabetes mellitus; Hx: history.

• It is self-contained (can be understood even without reference to the entire paper).
• Small tables that can be summarized in 2-3 lines are preferred to be in text form.

• Include a title (at the head of the table - includes the name of the population studied).
• Give a short heading for each column
• Explain all abbreviations used in the table in the footnotes
• Superscript letters to add clarifying notes

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Table ( ): Baseline clinical characteristics of the studied groups

Figures�

• Figures will show more visual detail than tables.
• Figures must be informative, not entertaining, and often contain valuable information regarding the main purpose of the article.
• Examine the titles of all your tables and figures and check if they talk about the same or similar things. If so, delete the tables/graphs.

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1. Try to built your figures within an imaginary rectangle 1 unit high and 1.5 units wide

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• b) Make the information flow from left to right. Array numbers so their magnitudes increase from left to right

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• c) Whenever possible, position words horizontally, not vertically

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Figure Legend (Caption) �

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• The figure has to be prepared in a “stand-alone” manner and should provide “take-home” messages for readers)

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• Write the legends in spare phrases— complete sentences are not necessary.
• The first phrase in your legend is a title, and it should summarize the figure (interpretations of the results in the figure) and name of the population studied

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• Succeeding phrases or sentences give definitions of symbols and abbreviations, and the names of any statistical tests used.

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• A figure and its legend should be self-explanatory, a miniature report in themselves.

Where to put figures?�

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• Any picture: photograph, diagram, drawing or graph can be a scientific figure.
• Figures that portray techniques should be put in the Materials and Methods section.
• Figures of data belong in the Results section.
• Figures of synthetic concepts, abstractions, theories, and models should be in the Discussion section.

�Discussion��

• Summarize the key Findings without repeating the results section.
• Address the Study’s Objectives. Did the results support or refute your hypothesis? If unexpected, discuss potential reasons.
• Explain the meaning of your findings. Why are they important? (importance and novelty of the work)
• Discuss Clinical or Scientific Implications: Highlight the practical or theoretical significance of your findings. How do they contribute to medical knowledge, clinical practice, or policy?
• Be specific about who might benefit (e.g., patients, clinicians, researchers) and how.

�The key principles for crafting an effective discussion section:�

�Discussion��

• Organize the discussion in a logical flow.
• Engage with the literature: Cite relevant studies to place your work in the broader scientific context. This strengthens your arguments. cite recent and high-quality sources, prioritizing peer-reviewed articles.
• Ensure each paragraph focuses on a single idea, transitioning smoothly to the next. Be concise and focused
• Use subheadings if appropriate.

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�Discussion��

• Identify limitations of your study (e.g., sample size, study design, biases, or generalizability)
• Avoid downplaying limitations; instead, explain their potential impact and how they could be addressed in future research.
• Example: "The small sample size may limit generalizability, but the randomized design strengthens the internal validity of our findings.
• Suggest specific areas for further investigation based on your findings or limitations. This shows the study’s role in advancing the field.

Example: "Future studies should explore the long-term effects of this intervention in larger, more diverse populations.

The Conclusions

• Conclude with a clear, concise summary of the study’s significance and its contribution to the field.
• Ensure that conclusions are supported by data. Avoid introducing new data or ideas in the conclusion.
• Maintain objectivity and avoid overstatement.
• Use cautious language (e.g., "suggests," "may indicate") unless the evidence is definitive.

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How to Write Effectively?

• Make lists of ideas, notes, and facts.
• In another session, transform the lists into sentences. Later, you can assemble paragraphs. Ultimately, you will refine the writing into a concise and straightforward narrative.
• A scientific paragraph usually starts with a summary sentence (lead sentence), and the succeeding sentences explain and expand the idea summarized in the first sentence in an order that feels logical. Do this for the whole section.
• Scientific paragraphs must be logical, spare, to-the-point, and complete.�

The goal is to write a paper that is easy to understand

• Creating a manuscript is a process of writing out ideas, organizing them, disassembling the organization, rewriting, and then reassembling.
• Well-organized text will not come easily if you work line by line, trying to thoroughly polish one sentence before moving to the next.
• Instead, it is better to work through whole sections of the paper each time you sit down to write.

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Precise Language: Define your words

• The essential characteristic of scientific writing is clarity; No place for ambiguity or equivocation
• You should use precise words and, whenever possible, numbers.
• Each sentence must present an idea written in an unequivocal vocabulary

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Don’t use:

• Words with no clear limits�a lot, long term, short term, slightly, somewhat, sort of, very, really, fairly
• Expressions or words of personal judgment�assuredly, beautiful, certainly, disappointing, disturbing, fortuitous, hopefully, inconvenient, luckily, of course, regrettable, remarkable, sadly, surely, unfortunately
• Colorful words

��Scientific Use of Tenses��

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Present Tense

• Use the present tense for the general case and for what is already known

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Past Tense

• The past tense is historical
• Use the past tense when referring to specific events that have�already happened.
• The observations you made during a research study are bits of history, so use the past tense when you report experimental results ��

Numbers

• Numbers are precise and objective, and they can be used to describe most things in the real world.
• Quantifiable words are the natural words for science.
• Even the subjective symptoms such as fatigue and depression, should be set as a number on a scale quantifying how painful � �

Seek Feedback

• Have colleagues review your paper for clarity, logic, and completeness.
• Avoid jargon where possible and ensure clarity for readers less familiar with the topic.

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Helpful applications and programs

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Thank you