Lesson Overview

11.2 Applying Mendel’s Principles

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THINK ABOUT IT

• Nothing in life is certain.
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• If a parent carries two different alleles for a certain gene, we can’t be sure which of those alleles will be inherited by one of the parent’s offspring.
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• However, even if we can’t predict the exact future, we can do something almost as useful—we can figure out the odds.

Probability and Punnett Squares

• How can we use probability to predict traits?

Probability and Punnett Squares

• How can we use probability to predict traits?
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• Punnett squares use mathematical probability to help predict the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses.
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Probability and Punnett Squares

• Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he carefully categorized and counted the offspring.
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• For example, whenever he crossed two plants that were hybrid for stem height (Tt), about three fourths of the resulting plants were tall and about one fourth were short.

Probability and Punnett Squares

• Mendel realized that the principles of probability could be used to explain the results of his genetic crosses.
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• Probability is the likelihood that a particular event will occur.

Probability and Punnett Squares

• For example, there are two possible outcomes of a coin flip: The coin may land either heads up or tails up.
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• The chance, or probability, of either outcome is equal. Therefore, the probability that a single coin flip will land heads up is 1 chance in 2. This amounts to 1/2, or 50 percent.

Probability and Punnett Squares

• If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability that it will land heads up every time?
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• Each coin flip is an independent event, with a one chance in two probability of landing heads up.

Probability and Punnett Squares

• Therefore, the probability of flipping three heads in a row is:
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• 1/2 × 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/8

Probability and Punnett Squares

• As you can see, you have 1 chance in 8 of flipping heads three times in a row.
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• Past outcomes do not affect future ones. Just because you’ve flipped 3 heads in a row does not mean that you’re more likely to have a coin land tails up on the next flip.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• The way in which alleles segregate during gamete formation is every bit as random as a coin flip.
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• Therefore, the principles of probability can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Mendel’s cross produced a mixture of tall and short plants.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• If each F₁ plant had one tall allele and one short allele (Tt), then 1/2 of the gametes they produced would carry the short allele (t).

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Because the t allele is recessive, the only way to produce a short (tt) plant is for two gametes carrying the t allele to combine.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Each F₂ gamete has a one in two, or 1/2, chance of carrying the t allele.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• There are two gametes, so the probability of both gametes carrying the �t allele is:
• ½ x ½ = ¼

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Roughly one fourth of the F₂ offspring should be short, and the remaining three fourths should be tall.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• This predicted ratio—3 dominant to 1 recessive—showed up consistently in Mendel’s experiments.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• For each of his seven crosses, about 3/4 of the plants showed the trait controlled by the dominant allele.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• About 1/4 of the plants showed the trait controlled by the recessive allele.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Not all organisms with the same characteristics have the same combinations of alleles.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• In the F₁ cross, both the TT and Tt allele combinations resulted in tall pea plants. The tt allele combination produced a short pea plant.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular gene—TT or tt in this example—are said to be homozygous.

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

• Organisms that have two different alleles for the same gene—such as Tt—are heterozygous.

Probabilities Predict Averages

• Probabilities predict the average outcome of a large number of events.
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• The larger the number of offspring, the closer the results will be to the predicted values.
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• If an F₂ generation contains just three or four offspring, it may not match Mendel’s ratios.
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• When an F₂ generation contains hundreds or thousands of individuals, the ratios usually come very close to matching Mendel’s predictions.

Genotype and Phenotype

• Every organism has a genetic makeup as well as a set of observable characteristics.
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• All of the tall pea plants had the same phenotype, or physical traits.
• They did not, however, have the same genotype, or genetic makeup.

Genotype and Phenotype

• There are three different genotypes among the F2 plants: Tt, TT, and tt.
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• The genotype of an organism is inherited, whereas the phenotype is formed as a result of both the environment and the genotype.
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• Two organisms may have the same phenotype but different genotypes.

Using Punnett Squares

• One of the best ways to predict the outcome of a genetic cross is by drawing a simple diagram known as a Punnett square.
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• Punnett squares allow you to predict the genotype and phenotype combinations in genetic crosses using mathematical probability.

How To Make a Punnett Square for a One-Factor Cross

• Write the genotypes of the two organisms that will serve as parents in a cross.
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• In this example we will cross a male and female osprey that are heterozygous for large beaks. They each have genotypes of Bb.
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• Bb and Bb

How To Make a Punnett Square

• Determine what alleles would be found in all of the possible gametes that each parent could produce.

How To Make a Punnett Square

• Draw a table with enough spaces for each pair of gametes from each parent.
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• Enter the genotypes of the gametes produced by both parents on the top and left sides of the table.

How To Make a Punnett Square

• Fill in the table by combining the gametes’ genotypes.

How To Make a Punnett Square

• Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of each offspring.
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• Calculate the percentage of each. In this example, three fourths of the chicks will have large beaks, but only one in two will be heterozygous.

Independent Assortment

• How do alleles segregate when more than one gene is involved?

Independent Assortment

• How do alleles segregate when more than one gene is involved?
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• The principle of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.

Independent Assortment

• Mendel wondered if the segregation of one pair of alleles affects another pair.
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• Mendel performed an experiment that followed two different genes as they passed from one generation to the next.
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• Because it involves two different genes, Mendel’s experiment is known as a two-factor, or dihybrid, cross. Single-gene crosses are monohybrid crosses.

The Two-Factor Cross: F1

• Mendel crossed true-breeding plants that produced only round yellow peas with plants that produced wrinkled green peas.
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The Two-Factor Cross: F1

• The round yellow peas had the genotype RRYY, which is homozygous dominant.

The Two-Factor Cross: F1

• The wrinkled green peas had the genotype rryy, which is homozygous recessive.

The Two-Factor Cross: F1

• All of the F₁ offspring produced round yellow peas. These results showed that the alleles for yellow and round peas are dominant over the alleles for green and wrinkled peas.
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• The Punnett square shows that the genotype of each F₁ offspring was RrYy, heterozygous for both seed shape and seed color.

The Two-Factor Cross: F2

• Mendel then crossed the F₁ plants to produce F₂ offspring.
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The Two-Factor Cross: F2

Mendel observed that 315 of the F₂ seeds were round and yellow, while another 32 seeds were wrinkled and green—the two parental phenotypes.

But 209 seeds had combinations of phenotypes, and therefore combinations of alleles, that were not found in either parent.

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The Two-Factor Cross: F2

The alleles for seed shape segregated independently of those for seed color.

Genes that segregate independently—such as the genes for seed shape and seed color in pea plants—do not influence each other’s inheritance.

The Two-Factor Cross: F2

• Mendel’s experimental results were very close to the 9:3:3:1 ratio that the Punnett square shown predicts.
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• Mendel had discovered the principle of independent assortment. The principle of independent assortment states that genes for different traits can segregate independently during gamete formation.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• What did Mendel contribute to our understanding of genetics?

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• What did Mendel contribute to our understanding of genetics?
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• Mendel’s principles of heredity, observed through patterns of inheritance, form the basis of modern genetics.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units called genes, which are passed from parents to offspring.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• Where two or more forms (alleles) of the gene for a single trait exist, some forms of the gene may be dominant and others may be recessive.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• In most sexually reproducing organisms, each adult has two copies of each gene—one from each parent. These genes segregate from each other when gametes are formed.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

• Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently of each other.

A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

At the beginning of the 1900s, American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan decided to use the common fruit fly as a model organism in his genetics experiments.

The fruit fly was an ideal organism for genetics because it could produce plenty of offspring, and it did so quickly in the laboratory.

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A Summary of Mendel’s Principles

Before long, Morgan and other biologists had tested every one of Mendel’s principles and learned that they applied not just to pea plants but to other organisms as well.

The basic principles of Mendelian genetics can be used to study the inheritance of human traits and to calculate the probability of certain traits appearing in the next generation.

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