Chaahat Prasad(1), Arli Hasa(2), Andrew Singh(3), Somdat Kissoon(4), (1)Aviation Career & Technical Education High School, Queens, NY 11101, (2)Brooklyn Technical High School, Brooklyn, NY 11217, (3)York College of CUNY & JFKR Aviation and Aeronautics Academy, Earth and Physical Sciences, Geology Discipline, Jamaica, NY 11451, (4)NYCCT, Brooklyn, NY 11201
�Radiography is commonly used in the field of medicine. However, expanding the usage of x-raying parts more frequently in the field of aviation can be exceptionally beneficial, as it can help detect catastrophic faults early on. Although aircraft manufacturers have established recommended ranges of motion, it is possible that there could still be potential problems within the aircraft components. It is expensive and dangerous to dismantle the airplane, which is why expanding x-ray usage can be a tool in assessing the condition of the aircraft.
Background
An enormous thanks to The Port Authority of NY & NJ, A New JFK, York College, Delta, American Airlines, JFK Millennium Partners and The New Terminal JFK International Airport, whose research grants made this STEM project possible. Special thanks to Somdat Kissoon & Andrew Singh whose support was pivotal to the completion of this poser.
Acknowledgements
Radiation in healthcare: X-Rays | Radiation | NCEH | CDC. (n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/x-rays.html
Boeing 747-SR100. (n.d.). Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faa.gov/lessons_learned/transport_airplane/accidents/JA8119
Pilot dies after plane crashes during gender reveal party in Mexico. (2023, September 5). cnn.com. https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/04/americas/mexico-gender-reveal-plane-crash-scli-intl/index.html
Major structural stresses of the aircraft. (n.d.). Aircraft Systems. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/major-structural-stresses.html
NASA: Radiographic Testing of Aerospace Materials
https://llis.nasa.gov/lesson/811
NASA:Advanced Computed X-Ray Tomography
References
Aircrafts are made of several parts which have
different properties and structural integrities which
can lead to issues such as fatigue cracking under
different loads and cycles.
This could cause mechanical defects that could
present severe issues to the pilots flying and the �aviation maintenance technicians inspecting the �aircrafts.
These fatigue cracks could be as small as �0.1-1 mm deep and it is not possible to calculate
exactly when these fatigue cracks will occur so
consistent maintenance is required to ensure the
safety of the aircraft.
X-rays are used in many fields, such as hospitals, airport baggage checks, border patrol, manufacturing, and sometimes maintenance. For example, radiographic testing is a very accurate method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in materials and welds. This type of testing should increasingly be used in maintenance to make certain that possible failures are highly unlikely. Nasa states that “radiographic testing provides a permanent visual record of the defects for possible future use.” X-radiation gives us a record of the discrepancies in an aircraft that we can use as a reference in the future and also makes it easier to find the fault.
One way we could lessen the chances of these fatal damages is by incorporating NDTs that use x-ray imaging during the 100-hour inspections. Adding this part to the checklist for every aircraft may be time-consuming, but in the long term, it could save lives and the reputation of the airline.
According to QCI International (2006), Sikorsky (an aircraft parts manufacturer company), takes approximately 3,600 radiographic images during their manufacturing process throughout the year. This is critical because overlooked defects could have disastrous results. This implies that if we use this testing method more often in maintenance, it could also prevent overlooked defects and human error.
X-raying aircraft is the future for aircraft engineers to examine aircraft hardware without damaging the airplane, as the x-ray allows for direct viewing of the components of the aircraft. Direct viewing of the components of the aircraft will allow for less maintenance time and for most of the issues with the aircraft to be addressed and fixed. There is a need for further investment in x-ray technologies, which could be the advancement needed for the security and safety of aircraft.
Figure 1: Advanced Computed X-ray Tomography Basic System Block Diagram
Cross-sectional images, generated by rotating and translating test objects slowly in an X-ray source, produce accurate representations of thin slices of the test object. It takes 20 minutes to produce an image of a thin slice for a typical SRM nozzle. To form a three-dimensional image of the internal structure of the nozzle, 150 to 250 slice images are acquired and stacked. The entire process is controlled remotely by computer. Operational personnel are located external to the test cell. To prevent personnel contact with harmful X-radiation sources or environment, there are safety precautions that include constant dosage monitoring of stray/exposure radiation (NASA, 1999).
Aircraft are made of thousands of parts, which require engineers to develop and analyze complex solutions to create a vehicle that flies. Some factors that engineers examine in aircraft structure are weight, strength, and reliability. Aircraft are made to be strong, light, and able to carry a lot of weight. During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or declaration increases the forces due to F=MA and stresses on the wings and fuselage. Tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion are some of the many stresses that the airframe of an aircraft has to deal with during flight.
The load factor is a dimensionless quantity that represents the stress that the aircraft experiences during turns, pitching moments, and accelerations that could possibly cause damage to the aircraft, which is where X-raying could allow airlines to inspect components to prevent excessive damage and ensure the reliability and functionality of most parts that could fail due to structural damage.
Stress and Damages in Aircraft Components
Current Usage of X-Rays
Right: X-raying used by the US. Customs and Border Protection Agency that detect the transfer of illegal immigrants and addictive substances from the US-Mexico Border (Customs and Border Protection, 2019).
Left: X-ray inspection machine used for manufacturing in a production line
(Cassel Inspection, 2024).
Left: Major Structural loads on an airliner [Bettebghor, Dimitri & Grihon, Stéphane & Morlier, Joseph & Onera, D & Grihon, S & Isae-Sup'aéro, J. (2018). Bilevel optimization of large composite structures based on lamination parameters and post-optimal sensitivities. Part 1: Theoretical aspects.]
Left:
Example of an x-ray of an electronic part
(Image credit: . ALTER TECHNOLOGY TÜV NORD S.A.U, 2019)
INCREASED USE OF RADIOGRAPHY IN THE AVIATION INDUSTRY CAN IMPROVE SAFETY
Crashes Due To Improper Maintenance
Left:
Crash Site of Japan Airlines Flight 123 showing workers and helicopters cleaning after the site.
(Image credit: Federal Aviation Administration, 2023)
Aircraft crashes are unfortunately not uncommon, and the majority of them are due to improper maintenance and design failures. Such tragedies could have been avoided with proper testing and maintenance by utilizing x-rays. First, let us look at the almost 40-year-old crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123, leading to four injuries and 520 fatalities out of the 524 people on board. The FAA states that the cause of the crash was improper repair of an undetected local fatigue crack, which undermined the bulkhead’s strength. The plane had then lost its auxiliary power unit, rudder, and a large portion of the vertical stabilizer. Due to such problems, the aircraft experienced a dutch-roll and severe problems with pitch stability. Because the incident happened 12 minutes after takeoff, the pilot had little altitude, and unless there was a clear, straight path to the airport, there was nothing the pilot could do. The airplane eventually crashed into mountainous terrain.
Right: Comparison of Penetration Range of Conventional X-Ray Tube vs. High Energy Source.
We can see that X-rays penetrate more through the material (steel) than the high energy source, so if it is increasingly used in aviation, more defects can be detected. [NASA]
Above: Fighter Jet Load Factor vs Airspeed Graph (FAA, 2014)
Above:
Water is entrapped in the honeycomb core of a paddle (a part of a tail rotor blade) and will need to be removed. (Image credit: QCI International, 2006 )
Difficulty in procuring reputable data sources for the following:
Limitations
Above: EDX spectrum showing presence of Cl at the crack origin.
Aircraft Fatigue Cracks
Solution to Detecting Aircraft Damage
Left: Additional stresses endured by an aircraft when it is not in flight that can cause further defects such as cracks, brittleness, looseness, etc.
“To avoid failure, the tensile stress in service must be maintained at a safe level. Since stresses are additive, all sources of stress (see Table 1) must be considered to ensure that the threshold stress is not exceeded.” (NASA, 1999).
Left:
Additional advantages of using Radiographic Testing (X-Ray) in aviation (NASA, 1999)
Advantages |
Provides visual images |
Provides permanent records |
Inspects complex shapes |
Inspects both metallics and nonmetallics |
Inspects for internal flaws in materials |
Inspects thick materials |
Provides real-time viewing (via fluorescent screens & electronic means) |
GSA abstract (June 18) - 2000 characters max without spaces
Increased Use of Radiography in the Aviation Industry Can Improve Safety
Electrical components are resistant to X-ray waves meaning that X-rays are effective at detecting problems within those components without damaging them. Furthermore, the metals commonly found in airplanes such as aluminum allow for easy passage of X-ray waves.
Since airplanes require many electrical components to function properly, it could be an ideal choice to expand the usage of X-raying technology.
The best part about X-raying technology is that it is already quite advanced and capable so the only issue is the mobility and ability to X-ray a large body such as the airplane's structure. The border patrol agency already has several X-raying machinery that is capable of surveying giant vehicles such as hauler trucks. However, the issue is that these X-ray vehicles are stationary. New innovative concepts of portable X-ray machinery need to be made for X-raying airplanes to be cost-effective, however, companies such as PKI Electronics are taking steps to make this more accessible to airlines.
The smallest failure in an electrical component can lead to the plane being unable to operate and leaving the pilot to be hopeless in carrying out their duties to keep the plane and passengers safe. This is why X-raying is a solution to making sure that more electronic and mechanical components of the aircraft are checked to ensure passenger safety.
The airplane experiences many stresses and tensions which could cause small cracks and fatigues that could spread and cause the aircraft to fail. Which is why X-raying an aircraft allows for more indepth scans that can reveal even the tiniest of issues that could be detrimental to the airplane’s electrical, structural, or mechanical system.
AEG abstract (it was accepted)
Increased Use of Radiography in the Aviation Industry Can Improve Safety
Although radiography is mainly used in medicine, x-raying may be beneficial in the field of aviation. Wings and other parts of the airplane experience stress and can potentially be damaged. While aircraft manufacturers have established recommended ranges of motion, it is still possible to have problems within the aircraft components. It is expensive and dangerous to dismantle the airplane, which is why x-rays can be a useful tool in assessing the condition of the aircraft. Aircraft crashes from improper maintenance and design failures cause tragedies that may be avoided with proper testing and maintenance by utilizing x-rays. Nasa states that “radiographic testing provides a permanent visual record of the defects for possible future use.” X-radiation gives us a record of the discrepancies in an aircraft that we can use as a reference in the future and also makes it easier to find the fault.
During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or deceleration increases the forces and stresses the wings and fuselage. Tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion are issues that airframes must endure during flight. With cycles of parts being used due to the material, there is a chance that fatigue cracks could go unchecked, as they can occur randomly and variably. Aircraft need many maintenance hours to be safe to fly, and approximately 3600 radiographic images are taken by a manufacturer when inspecting the parts. Faults in the structural integrity of the aircraft can be detrimental to safety. X-raying aircraft is the future for aircraft engineers to examine aircraft hardware without damaging the airplane, as the X-ray allows for direct viewing of the components of the aircraft. Direct viewing of the components of the aircraft will allow for less maintenance time and for most of the issues with the aircraft to be addressed and fixed.
Abstract
Although radiology is mainly used in medicine, x-raying may be beneficial in the field of aviation. Wings and other parts of the airplane experience stress and can potentially be damaged. While aircraft manufacturers have established recommended ranges of motion, it is still possible to have problems within the aircraft components. It is expensive and dangerous to dismantle the airplane, which is why x-rays can be a useful tool in assessing the condition of the aircraft.
Aircraft crashes from improper maintenance and design failures cause tragedies that may be avoided with proper testing and maintenance by utilizing x-rays.
Aircrafts are made of thousands of parts which require engineers to develop and analyze complex solutions to create a vehicle that flies. During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or declaration increases the forces and stresses the wings and fuselage. Tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion are issues that airframes must endure during flight.
Aircrafts need maintenance hours for the aircraft to be allowed to fly. Faults in the structural integrity of the aircraft can be fatal.
X-raying aircraft is the future for aircraft engineers to examine aircraft hardware without damaging the airplane as the X-ray allows for direct viewing of the components of the aircraft. Direct viewing of the components of the aircraft will allow for less maintenance time and for most of the issues of the aircraft to be addressed and fixed.
Source documents
1985-08-12
Japan: Mount Osutaka
Improper maintenance
520
Faulty repair after same plane suffered a tailstrike: the rear bulkhead failed which caused the tail fin to fall off and rupture all four hydraulic systems. The crash remains the deadliest single-aircraft accident in aviation history.
Crash In Mexico and images to use.
Source: https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/04/americas/mexico-gender-reveal-plane-crash-scli-intl/index.html
�
References
https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/04/americas/mexico-gender-reveal-plane-crash-scli-intl/index.html
Images(All images have the sources in brackets):
https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/x-rays.html
https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/x-rays.html
https://www.cassel-inspection.com/x-ray-inspection-machine
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1350630707001409
Arli Hasa1, Andrew M Singh2, Somdat Kissoon (1)Brooklyn Technical High School, Aerospace Engineering Major, Brooklyn, New York (2)York College of CUNY & JFKR Aviation and Aeronautics Academy, Earth and Physical Sciences, Geology Discipline, Jamaica, United States, (3)NYCCT
Radiology is commonly used in the field of medicine.
However expanding the usage of x-raying can be exceptionally beneficial in the field of aviation. Lift is generated from the wings as a byproduct of the thrusters pushing the plane forward. The wings and many other parts of the airplane experience stress and can potentially be damaged.
Although aircraft manufacturers have established recommended ranges of motion, it is possible that there could be potential problems within the aircraft components. It is expensive and dangerous to dismantle the airplane, which is why expanding x-ray usage can be a tool in assessing the condition of the aircraft.
Background
An enormous thanks to The Port Authority of NY & NJ, A New JFK, York College, Delta, American Airlines, JFK Millennium Partners and The New Terminal JFK International Airport, whose research grants made this STEM project possible. Special thanks to Somdat Kissoon whose support was pivotal to the completion of this poser.
Acknowledgements
Radiation in healthcare: X-Rays | Radiation | NCEH | CDC. (n.d.). https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/x-rays.html
Boeing 747-SR100. (n.d.). Federal Aviation Administration. https://www.faa.gov/lessons_learned/transport_airplane/accidents/JA8119
Pilot dies after plane crashes during gender reveal party in Mexico. (2023, September 5). cnn.com. https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/04/americas/mexico-gender-reveal-plane-crash-scli-intl/index.html
Major structural stresses of the aircraft. (n.d.). Aircraft Systems. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/major-structural-stresses.html
References
Recently a plane crashed during a gender reveal party in
Mexico. The plane clearly had a high airspeed with the
wings being visibly damaged and with a high dihedral
angle. if the airplane had proper maintenance and an
extensive check through x-raying it is possible the airplane’s
integrity would have been enough for the pilot to survive.
X-Rays are used in many fields such as in hospitals, airport baggage checks, border patrol, and manufacturing.
X-raying aircraft is the future for aircraft engineers to examine aircraft hardware without damaging the airplane as the x-ray allows for direct viewing of the components of the aircraft. Direct viewing of the components of the aircraft will allow for less maintenance time and for most of the issues of the aircraft to be addressed and fixed.
Solution To Detecting Aircraft Damage
Aircrafts are made of thousands of parts which require engineers to develop and analyze complex solutions to create a vehicle that flies. Some factors that engineers examine in aircraft structure are the weight, strength, and reliability. Aircrafts are made to be strong, light, and able to carry a lot of weight. During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or declaration increases the forces, due to F=MA, and stresses on the wings and fuselage. Tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion are some of the many issues that airframes have to deal during flight.
Engineers and manufactures know these issues and have designed many parts that hold the aircraft together, but the problem is maintaining the aircrafts. Aircrafts need to have many maintenance hours for the aircraft to be allowed to fly and yet there could still be problems within the aircraft. These faults in the structural integrity of the aircraft can be fatal.
Stress and Damages in Aircraft Components
Current Usage of X-Rays
Above: X-rays of human body parts that are useful to doctors to diagnose patients.
[Center of Disease Control]
JFK Airport’s State of the Art Security Scanner that improves detection capability which allows for increased security and improves the efficiency of airport safety.
[American Airlines]
Below: X-raying used by the US. Customs and Border Protection Agency that detect the transfer of illegal immigrants and addictive substances from the US-Mexico Border
[Customs and Border Protection]
Left: X-ray inspection machine used for manufacturing in a production line.
[Cassel Inspection]
Left: Major Structural loads on an airliner [Bettebghor, Dimitri & Grihon, Stéphane & Morlier, Joseph & Onera, D & Grihon, S & Isae-Sup'aéro, J. (2018). Bilevel optimization of large composite structures based on lamination parameters and post-optimal sensitivities. Part 1: Theoretical aspects.]
Above: X-Ray Aircraft Scanning System [PKI- Electronics]
Plane in Mexico with dihedral angle and after the plane experienced too much G-load causing wings to break
[CNN]
Above: Example of an x-ray of an electronic part
[ALTER Technology]
(Archive) Application and Benefits of X-Rays in Aviation Maintenance and Safety
Crashes Due To Improper Maintenance
Left: Crash Site of Japan Airlines Flight 123 showing
workers and helicopters cleaning after the site.
[Federal Aviation Administration]
Aircraft crashes are sadly not uncommon and a majority of them are due to improper maintenance and design failures. Such tragedies could have been avoided with proper testing and maintenance by utilizing x-rays.
First let us look at almost 40-year-old crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 leading to 4-injuries and 520 fatalities out of the 524 people on board. The FAA states that the cause of the crash was improper repair of an undetected local fatigue cracking which undermined the bulkhead’s strength. The plane had then lost its Auxiliary Power Unit, rudder, and a large portion of the vertical stabilizer were lost.
Due to such problems, the aircraft experienced dutch-roll and severe problems with pitch stability and because the incident happened 12 minutes after takeoff, the pilot had little altitude and unless there was a clear straight path to the airport, there was nothing the pilot could do. The airplane eventually crashed into mountainous terrain.