MEDIA
History of Media &
Mass Communication
How Information Has Shaped — and Controlled — Society
Media Literacy Unit | English 10
The Central
Question
Throughout history,
who controls the
message controls
the people.
01
Who controls the information you receive?
02
Who decides what is newsworthy?
03
How has media been used to shape opinion?
04
What makes you trust a source?
Ancient World: Greece & Rome
~500 BCE – 500 CE
Literacy as Power
Reading and writing were privileges of ruling elites. The vast majority of people were intentionally kept illiterate — limiting their access to laws, history, and ideas.
Scrolls & Records
Official documents, laws, and decrees were kept on papyrus scrolls. These were controlled by the state and clergy — the public had little to no access.
Acta Diurna
Julius Caesar's 'Daily Acts' (~59 BCE) were Rome's first official gazette — posted in public spaces to announce government decisions. Controlled entirely by the state.
Early Communication Networks
The Persian Empire's Royal Road (~550 BCE) enabled couriers to relay messages across 1,500 miles in 9 days.
Rome's Cursus Publicus was a state-controlled mail relay system — used exclusively for government and military communication.
Private citizens had no access to these systems. Information flow was tightly controlled from the top down.
Oral tradition and public proclamation were the only mass media available to ordinary people.
KEY INSIGHT: Information = Power. Restricting literacy was not an accident — it was policy.
The Church & The Authorized Word
~400 CE – 1400s
~5%
of Europeans
could read
in 1000 CE
Those who could?
Almost exclusively
clergymen and
nobility.
Scriptoriums & Manuscript Culture
Monks hand-copied the Bible and other approved texts. This slow, expensive process meant only churches and nobles owned books — and what got copied was carefully chosen.
The 'Authorized' Bible
The Latin Vulgate Bible (St. Jerome, ~405 CE) became the official Church version. Since sermons were delivered in Latin, ordinary people depended entirely on priests to interpret scripture — giving clergy enormous power to shape belief.
Heresy & Information Control
The Church had authority to declare unauthorized texts heretical. Owning or reading unapproved texts could result in punishment. This was an explicit system of information censorship.
Illuminated Manuscripts as Propaganda
Beautifully decorated manuscripts communicated Church authority visually even to the illiterate — images of saints, kings, and biblical scenes reinforced the social hierarchy.
KEY INSIGHT: The Church controlled not just what people believed — but what they were allowed to know.
The Printing Press
Johannes Gutenberg | ~1440s | The First True Mass Medium
200
copies/day
A single press could print more in one day than a monk could copy in a lifetime.
20M
books by 1500
Within 50 years of Gutenberg's press, an estimated 20 million volumes were in circulation.
3¢
cost drop
The cost of a book fell by approximately 300x, making knowledge accessible to the middle class.
Consequences of Mass Printing
The Protestant Reformation (1517)
Martin Luther's 95 Theses spread across Germany within weeks — only possible with the printing press. It fractured the Church's monopoly on religious interpretation.
Rise of the Middle Class Reader
As book prices fell, literacy spread beyond elites. The press created demand for education, driving the Renaissance and Enlightenment.
Pamphlets & Underground Press
Political and religious dissenters could now distribute ideas widely. Governments scrambled to create censorship systems — the first 'press freedom' battles began.
State vs. Church Conflict
Both rulers and Church authorities immediately recognized the threat. England's Licensing Act (1662) required all publications to be pre-approved by the government.
The 1700s: Revolution of the Written Word
The Novel
Mass Entertainment & Moral Panic
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) is often called the first English novel — instantly popular with the growing literate middle class.
Authorities feared novels encouraged idleness, 'over-excitement,' and ideas above one's station.
Women reading novels were particularly scrutinized — fiction was seen as dangerous to female 'virtue.'
CONNECT: How are video games, social media, and AI treated by today's moral guardians?
Pamphlets & Tracts
First Underground Press
Cheap to print, easy to distribute, hard to censor — pamphlets were the social media of the 1700s.
Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776) sold 500,000 copies in a population of 2.5 million — arguably the most influential pamphlet in history.
Both establishment and revolutionary ideas spread via pamphlets; governments tried to tax or ban them.
Anonymous authorship was common — protecting writers from prosecution while allowing free expression.
Early Newspapers
Birth of the Press
The first regularly published English newspaper, The Daily Courant, launched in 1702.
By 1760, London had over 80 different newspapers and periodicals.
Newspapers became tied to political factions — readers chose papers that reflected their views.
John Peter Zenger's 1735 trial in New York established that truth was a defense against libel — a cornerstone of press freedom.
The 1800s: Age of Industrial Media
Speed + Scale + Picture = Modern Mass Media
1833
Penny Press
The New York Sun costs 1 cent — news becomes affordable for working class. Circulation wars begin. Sensationalism emerges.
1844
Telegraph
Samuel Morse's invention allows messages to cross continents in seconds. Stock prices, news, and military orders travel at the speed of electricity.
1839
Photography
Daguerreotype invented. For the first time, visual 'proof' can be mass produced. Photos appear in newspapers by the 1880s — changing what people believe.
1876
Telephone
Bell's telephone transforms person-to-person communication. Business and personal information moves faster than ever.
1877
Phonograph
Edison's invention allows sound to be recorded and replayed. Music, speeches, and stories become 'on-demand' for the first time.
1890s
Yellow Journalism
Pulitzer (NY World) and Hearst (NY Journal) compete for readers through sensationalism. Their coverage of Cuba helps push the U.S. into the Spanish-American War (1898).
Media as a Weapon:
Yellow Journalism & Early Propaganda
"You furnish the pictures, and I'll furnish the war."
— Attributed to William Randolph Hearst, 1897 (disputed, but representative of the era)
Newspaper Wars
By 1895, Pulitzer's New York World and Hearst's New York Journal were in a circulation war — using dramatic, often fabricated headlines to sell papers.
The USS Maine
When the USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor (1898), both papers blamed Spain with no evidence — helping drum up support for war. A prototype of media-driven conflict.
WWI Propaganda
The U.S. Committee on Public Information (1917) used newspapers, posters, films, and 75,000 public speakers to manufacture consent for WWI.
Lippmann's Warning
Journalist Walter Lippmann (1922) warned that media creates 'the pictures in our heads' — that most people experience the world through media filters, not direct experience.
The Broadcast Era: Radio, Film & Television
1920s – 1970s
1920s
Radio
The First Living Room Mass Medium
Radio stations first broadcast in 1920 (KDKA, Pittsburgh). By 1930, over 12 million American homes had radios. NBC and CBS formed national networks — the same content reaching millions simultaneously. Politicians, advertisers, and propagandists immediately recognized radio's power.
Example:
FDR's 'Fireside Chats' (1933–44): Roosevelt used radio to speak directly to Americans during the Depression, bypassing hostile newspaper owners. Hitler's regime used state radio to spread Nazi ideology to every German household.
1920s–40s
Film & Talkies
Moving Pictures + Sound = Mass Storytelling
Silent films began in the 1890s; 'talkies' arrived in 1927 (The Jazz Singer). Hollywood studios created a dream factory — one that was deeply intertwined with government during WWII. The Office of War Information reviewed scripts and sent filmmakers to the front to document the war.
Example:
Disney made anti-Nazi cartoons for the U.S. government. Frank Capra's 'Why We Fight' documentary series was shown to every U.S. soldier and the general public. Film was weaponized as morale-building propaganda.
1940s–70s
Television
The Most Powerful Medium in History
TV signals were demonstrated in the 1930s but mass adoption came after WWII. By 1960, 90% of American homes had TVs. Three major networks (NBC, CBS, ABC) dominated — meaning three sets of editors decided what the nation watched.
Example:
The 1960 Kennedy-Nixon debate: viewers who watched on TV thought Kennedy won; radio listeners thought Nixon won. The Vietnam War became the first 'living room war' — graphic footage changed public opinion. The civil rights movement gained national sympathy partly through televised footage of police brutality.
Print's Golden Age & The Cable Revolution
1930s–1960s: Golden Age of Print
Life magazine (founded 1936) reaches 13.5 million subscribers by 1956 — photojournalism shapes how America sees itself.
TIME, LOOK, and Saturday Evening Post create a shared national culture — a 'common text' for millions.
Investigative journalism flourishes: muckrakers expose corporate and government corruption.
Edward R. Murrow's TV journalism brings down Senator McCarthy (1954) — demonstrating media's power to hold leaders accountable.
Newspaper consolidation: by the 1960s, chain ownership dominates. Cities that once had 5 competing papers now have 1 or 2.
1970s: Cable TV & the 24-Hour News Cycle
CNN launched in 1980 as the first 24-hour news network. This created a fundamental change in news: instead of scheduled broadcasts, news became constant. Audiences fragmented — consumers could choose their preferred network. The pressure to fill 24 hours of airtime changed what counted as news. Smaller stories got amplified; opinion began to fill space. The era of niche media had begun.
⚠ Media Consolidation
In 1983, 50 corporations controlled 90% of U.S. media. By 2011, just 6 companies controlled that same 90%: Comcast, News Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner, and CBS. Fewer owners = fewer perspectives. This is the business side of media control.
The Internet Era
1990s–2010s: Everyone becomes a publisher. Everything changes.
1990s
World Wide Web
Tim Berners-Lee's WWW (1991) opens the internet to the public.
Email becomes widespread — direct person-to-person communication outside corporate or government control.
AOL Instant Messenger (1997): real-time text communication at scale.
Napster (1999): first major digital disruption to a legacy media industry (music).
The 'browser wars' between Netscape and Microsoft signal corporate battles for control of information access.
2000s
Social Media & Mobile
Wikipedia (2001): crowdsourced knowledge challenges traditional authority of encyclopedias.
YouTube (2005): anyone can broadcast video globally. The cost of reaching an audience drops to zero.
Facebook (2004), Twitter (2006): social networks create echo chambers and filter bubbles.
iPhone (2007): powerful computer + camera + internet in every pocket.
Podcasting emerges as a new audio medium — independent creators bypass traditional gatekeepers.
2010s
The Algorithm Age
Social media algorithms optimize for engagement — outrage and fear drive more clicks than nuance.
Media streaming (Netflix, Spotify) replaces broadcast schedules — on-demand culture.
The Arab Spring (2010–11) shows social media's power to organize protest movements.
Russian interference in 2016 elections demonstrates social media as a disinformation weapon.
Traditional news organizations collapse: U.S. newspapers lose 57% of newsroom jobs 2008–2020.
2020s: AI, Deepfakes & the Crisis of Truth
The AI Media Revolution
Generative AI
Tools like ChatGPT, Midjourney, and Sora can generate convincing text, images, and video at near-zero cost. Anyone can now produce professional-quality media.
Deepfakes
AI-generated video can put words in real people's mouths. Political deepfakes are already being used in elections worldwide — making 'seeing' no longer 'believing.'
Automated Journalism
AI writes thousands of news articles per day — earnings reports, sports recaps, weather. Where does AI writing end and human journalism begin?
Chatbots & Social Bots
Automated accounts now make up a significant portion of social media traffic. These bots can amplify fringe views, manufacture outrage, and simulate popular support.
Why This Matters Now
For most of history, creating media required resources — a printing press, a broadcast license, a film studio. Those barriers kept production in the hands of the powerful. AI eliminates those barriers entirely. In 2024, a teenager with a laptop can produce a convincing fake news broadcast indistinguishable from real reporting. The question is no longer 'who controls the press?' but 'can anyone trust what they see?'
Class Discussion
If you can't trust your eyes, what can you trust?
Should AI-generated content be labeled?
How is this different from Hearst fabricating war stories?
Anatomy of Propaganda
Techniques used across every era — from ancient Rome to TikTok
Name-Calling
Attaching negative labels to opponents to trigger emotional rejection without evidence. — WWI: 'Huns'. WWII: Nazi anti-Semitic labels. Today: partisan name-calling on cable news.
Glittering Generalities
Using vague, positive words ('freedom,' 'patriotism') that trigger approval without specific meaning. — Used in every political campaign. 'Make America Great Again' — great for whom? When?
Transfer
Linking a respected symbol (flag, religion, science) to an idea to borrow its authority. — WWII posters linking war bonds to religion. Today: politicizing the American flag.
Testimonial
Using a respected figure to endorse an idea, regardless of their expertise. — Celebrity endorsements. Athletes selling unhealthy food. 'Doctors' in cigarette ads.
Plain Folks
Presenting powerful people as ordinary to build false identification. — Politicians in hard hats. Billionaires eating fast food on camera. 'I'm just like you.'
Card Stacking
Presenting only facts that support your argument while omitting contradictory evidence. — Used in every war: casualties on our side covered; enemy civilian casualties minimized.
Bandwagon
Creating the impression that everyone is doing it, so you should too. — '9 out of 10 Americans support...' Social media: likes and shares as social proof.
Fear Appeals
Exaggerating threats to drive compliance and override rational thinking. — McCarthy's Communist fears. Post-9/11 policy. COVID misinformation on both sides.
Becoming a Critical Media Consumer
01
Ask 'Who Benefits?'
Every piece of media was made by someone with a purpose. Ask: Who paid for this? What do they gain if you believe it? Follow the money.
Example: A study funded by the sugar industry finds sugar isn't bad for you.
02
Check Primary Sources
Go upstream. Find the original study, the original quote, the official document. Most misinformation is accurate-sounding summary of something that said something different.
Example: 'Scientists say...' — which scientists? Find the actual study.
03
Lateral Reading
Don't evaluate a source by reading deeper into it — check what other independent sources say about it. This is how professional fact-checkers work.
Example: Don't judge a website by its 'About Us' page; Google the website name.
04
Recognize Emotional Triggers
Propaganda works by triggering strong emotions before rational thought kicks in. If content makes you feel outrage, fear, or contempt — pause. That feeling may be the point.
Example: Outrage-bait headlines are designed to be shared, not read.
05
Notice What's Missing
Propaganda by omission is as powerful as propaganda by commission. Ask: What perspectives aren't here? Whose story isn't being told?
Example: War coverage often omits civilian casualty counts on the 'enemy' side.
06
Slow Down
Media platforms are designed to keep you scrolling fast. Misinformation spreads because people share before reading. Read the whole article. Check the date. Check the source.
Example: 65% of people share news based on headlines alone (MIT, 2018).
Where Do We Go
From Here?
The Technology Changes. The Question Never Does.
From Roman scrolls to AI chatbots, the powerful have always sought to control information flow — and the people have always fought back.
Every new medium brought both liberation (more voices) and new dangers (new forms of manipulation).
The skills of a critical reader in 1776 — ask who's speaking, what they want, what they're leaving out — are the same skills needed in 2025.
You are the most media-saturated generation in history. You will decide what truth means in the digital age.
The antidote to propaganda has always been the same: an educated, skeptical, curious public.
“The medium
is the
message.”
Marshall McLuhan
Understanding Media, 1964
McLuhan argued that how we receive information matters more than what the information says. The technology itself reshapes how we think, relate, and understand the world.
What Does It Mean?
The Content is a Distraction
We focus on what a medium says — the news story, the tweet, the TikTok — but McLuhan said that’s secondary. The real effect is how the medium rewires us. Television made us passive watchers. Social media made us constant performers seeking approval.
Hot vs. Cool Media
McLuhan called ‘hot’ media (film, radio) high-definition — they fill in the details for you, requiring little participation. ‘Cool’ media (TV, conversation) are low-definition — you fill in the gaps. Each trains a different kind of attention and engagement.
The Global Village (1964)
McLuhan predicted electric media would create a ‘global village’ — everyone connected instantly. He saw both the promise (shared humanity) and the danger (tribal warfare at global scale). He was writing before the internet existed. Sound familiar?
TODAY: Each platform — TikTok, Instagram, podcasts, AI — doesn’t just carry messages. It IS the message.
Neil Postman: Amusing Ourselves to Death
1985
Postman’s Central Argument: Orwell Was Wrong — Huxley Was Right
Orwell’s 1984 Warning
We will be destroyed by the things we fear: totalitarian governments, surveillance, censorship, a boot on a human face forever.
Truth will be hidden from us by an external oppressor.
Huxley’s Brave New World Warning ✓
We will be destroyed by the things we love: entertainment, distraction, pleasure, comfort.
Truth will drown in a sea of irrelevance. We won’t need censors — we’ll silence ourselves by choosing not to engage.
Postman’s Three Core Ideas
Television Turned Everything Into Entertainment
TV’s demand for images, brevity, and emotional impact infected all public discourse — politics, religion, education, news. Nothing serious survives the requirement to be entertaining. The format swallows the content.
The Typographic Mind vs. The Image Mind
The age of print trained sustained, linear reasoning and evidence-based argument. The age of television trained image-based, emotional, disconnected reaction. These are fundamentally different ways of knowing — and one is losing.
“Now... This”
Postman named the news format that jumps from genocide to weather to a puppy story without pause. The message: nothing is connected, nothing has consequences, nothing stays serious for long. It trains disengagement as a habit of mind.
Then & Now: The Theories Come to Life
McLuhan + Postman + Propaganda + Media Literacy — seen in the world you live in today
McLuhan
“The medium is the message”
TikTok doesn’t just carry content — it IS the message. The 60-second vertical video format demands a specific kind of attention, rewards certain emotions, and trains us away from sustained argument. The same story told on TikTok vs. a longform article vs. a podcast changes what we think and feel.
Propaganda connection:
Propagandists have always known this: Hitler used radio’s intimacy; modern disinformation uses the algorithm’s anger-reward loop. The medium shapes the manipulation.
Postman
“We are amusing ourselves to death”
In 1985, Postman worried about TV. Today: the average American spends 7 hours on screens daily. Instagram turns politics into aesthetics. YouTube autoplay is engineered to keep you watching. The attention economy IS the entertainment-ification of everything — Postman’s nightmare, scaled and personalized.
Propaganda connection:
Bandwagon, Fear Appeals, and Card Stacking now run on algorithms that A/B test which emotional trigger makes you share fastest. Postman’s ‘Now…This’ became infinite scroll.
Media Literacy
“Slow down. Ask who benefits. Think.”
McLuhan and Postman both argued that the first step is awareness — recognizing how the medium is shaping you before you even process its content. That is exactly what media literacy demands: pause, notice your emotional reaction, trace the source, consider what’s missing.
Propaganda connection:
Lateral reading, checking primary sources, and naming propaganda techniques aren’t just academic skills. They are survival skills for information warfare — and they’ve been needed in every era of this timeline.
The technology changes. The power dynamic changes. The need for a critical, informed mind never does.