Informative

Speech

Public Speaking

and

Critical Thinking

• That guy at the party last night really owned me when we were talking about the economy. I know my information is right, and I’m sure his argument didn’t make sense, but I can’t put my finger on the problem.
• I worked really hard on my term paper, but it’s just not right. It doesn’t seem to hang together, and I can’t figure out what’s wrong.
• Political speeches are so one-sided. The candidates sound good, but they all talk in slogans and generalities. It’s really hard to decide who has the best stands on the issues.

Have you ever thought this?

• To some extent, it’s a matter of logic—of being able to spot weaknesses in other people’s arguments and to avoid them in your own.
• It also involves related skills such as distinguishing fact from opinion, judging the credibility of statements, and assessing the soundness of evidence.
• In the broadest sense, critical thinking is focused, organized thinking—the ability to see clearly the relationships among ideas.

What is Critical Thinking? � (And, how can speech class help?)

• During this class, you will probably spend a good deal of time organizing your speeches. While this may seem like a purely mechanical exercise, it is closely interwoven with critical thinking.
• If the structure of your speech is disjointed and confused, odds are that your thinking is also disjointed and confused.
• If, on the other hand, the structure is clear and cohesive, there is a good chance your thinking is too.

What does this have to do with speech again?

• What is true of organization is true of many aspects of public speaking. The skills you learn in your speech class can help you become a more effective thinker in a number of ways.
• As you work on expressing your ideas in clear, accurate language, you will enhance your ability to think clearly and accurately.
• As you study the role of evidence and reasoning in speechmaking, you will see how they can be used in other forms of communication as well.
• As you learn to listen critically to speeches in class, you will be better able to assess the ideas of speakers (and writers) in a variety of situations.

ETHICS

in Public Speaking

The Importance of Ethics

• Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs. Questions of ethics arise whenever we ask whether a course of action is moral or immoral, fair or unfair, just or unjust, honest or dishonest.

• Questions of ethics also come into play whenever a public speaker faces an audience. In an ideal world, as the Greek philosopher Plato noted, all public speakers would be truthful and devoted to the good of society. His tutor, Socrates, was himself tried and condemned for “corrupting the youth” (i.e. teaching them how to argue)

• Adolf Hitler was unquestionably a persuasive speaker. His oratory galvanized the German people, but his aims were horrifying and his tactics despicable. He remains to this day the ultimate example of why the power of the spoken word needs to be guided by a strong sense of ethical integrity.

Guidelines for Ethical Speaking

• You have an obligation—to yourself and to your listeners—to prepare fully every time you stand in front of an audience.
• As a speaker, you have an ethical responsibility to consider that impact and to make sure you prepare fully so as not to communicate erroneous information or misleading advice.
• No matter what the topic, no matter who the audience, you need to explore your speech topic as thoroughly as possible. Investigate the whole story; learn about all sides of an issue; seek out competing viewpoints; get the facts right. Not only will you give a better speech, you will also fulfill one of your major ethical obligations.

A. Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech

“Public speaking rests on the unspoken assumption that ‘words can be trusted and people will be truthful.’ Without this assumption, there is no basis for communication, no reason for one person to believe anything that another person says.”

B. Be Honest in What You Say

• Blatant contempt for the truth is one kind of dishonesty in public speaking. But more subtle forms of dishonesty are just as unethical. They include: ��- juggling statistics �- quoting out of context�- misrepresenting sources�- painting tentative findings as firm conclusions�- portraying a few details as the whole story�- citing unusual cases as typical examples�- and substituting innuendo and half-truths for evidence � and proof.
• All of these violate the speaker’s duty to be accurate and fair in presenting information.

• As you work on your speeches, you will ask yourself such questions as ��- “Is my choice of topic suitable for the audience?” - “Are my supporting materials clear and � convincing?” �- “How can I phrase my ideas to give them more � punch?”
• These are strategic questions. As you answer them, you will try to make your speech as informative, as persuasive, or as entertaining as possible.

C. Put Ethical Principles into Practice

Plagiarism

• comes from plagiarius, the Latin word for kidnapper.
• To plagiarize means to present another person’s language or ideas as your own—to give the impression you have written or thought something yourself when you have actually taken it from someone else.

“Plagiarism”

Three Types of Plagiarism

• Global - Global plagiarism is stealing your speech entirely from another source and passing it off as your own. The most blatant—and unforgivable—kind of plagiarism, it is grossly unethical.�
• Patchwork - When an author takes from several sources but includes no citations - intent to mislead and avoid detection
• Incremental - When the speaker fails to give credit for small parts of the speech/paper taken from other sources - quotes and paraphrases

Guidelines for Ethical

LISTENING

• Be Courteous and Attentive�- Listen consciously and give feedback; be engaged
• Avoid Prejudicing the Speaker�- You do not have to agree, you goal is to listen to � the ideas and assess the evidence and reasoning, � forming an intelligent judgement
• Maintain a Free and Open Expression of Ideas�- Protect the right of speakers to be heard � according to the First Amendment

Free Speech?

• There are some kinds of speech that are not protected under the First Amendment—including defamatory falsehoods that destroy a person’s reputation, threats against the life of the President, and inciting an audience to illegal action in circumstances where the audience is likely to carry out the action. Otherwise, the Supreme Court has held—and most experts in communication ethics have agreed—that public speakers have an almost unlimited right of free expression.

• In contrast to this view, it has been argued that some ideas are so dangerous, so misguided, or so offensive that society has a duty to suppress them. But who is to determine which ideas are too dangerous, misguided, or offensive to be uttered? Who is to decide which speakers are to be heard and which are to be silenced? As Edward Kennedy explained in his acclaimed speech “Tolerance and Truth in America,” once we succumb to the temptation of censoring ideas with which we disagree, “we step onto a slippery slope where everyone’s freedom is at risk.”

Listen to Miller on �“Free Speech”

Selecting a TOPIC

and a PURPOSE

• The first step in speechmaking is choosing a topic.
• For speeches outside the classroom, the topic is usually determined by the occasion, the audience, and the speaker’s qualifications (they speak about what they know to who needs to hear it)
• BUT, in the classroom, you have more freedom. So, choose a topic you either KNOW about or WANT to know about.

• Whether or not you know about a topic or want to learn more about a topic may depend on the TYPE of speech you are asked to give:��- Informative - Argumentative�- Persuasive - Imperative
• You may choose to make your speech a learning experience OR deliver a persuasive rant on something about which are passionate.�

Brainstorming

• First, take a quick inventory of your personal interests, experiences, beliefs, hobbies, skills, etc.�
• OR, try “Clustering” - creating a word web of ideas around a central premise or topic. ��Ex: people, places, events, policies...

BOSTON

Historical Sites

Sports

College Tours

Cultural Events

Freedom Trail

​

​

State House

​

MIT

​

Harvard

Red Sox

Boston

Common

Determining the General Purpose

• Most speeches are intended to inform, persuade, or entertain
• Informative - conveys information clearly, accurately, and interestingly
• Persuasive - seeks to change or structure the attitude/beliefs of the recipient to match your beliefs
• Entertaining - aims at providing information or insight about a topic to which the audience can relate through humor

Specific Purpose?

• You must now narrow your topic down to exactly what it is you want to accomplish
• The specific purpose should be stated in a single infinitive phrase: “to inform the audience about...” “to persuade my audience to...”
• It states not only what the speaker wants to say but also what the speaker wants the audience to know as a result of the speech. This is very important, for it helps keep the audience at the center of your attention as you prepare your speech.

Tips for Writing Specific Purpose Statements

Questions to Ask about Your

Specific Purpose

• Does my purpose meet the assignment?
• Can I accomplish my purpose within the time allotted?
• Is the purpose relevant to my audience?
• Is the purpose too trivial or too technical?

Idea and Message

Crafting the Central Idea

Let’s Practice!

Understanding Your AUDIENCE

Audience-Centered

• To WHOM am I speaking?
• WHAT do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech?
• What is the most effective way of presenting my speech to accomplish this aim?

Demographic Audience Analysis

• Age
• Gender
• Sexual Orientation
• Racial or Ethnic Background
• Culture
• Religion
• Group Membership

You may think you know your audience before giving a speech, but consider the following about each audience you address and craft an appropriate message:

Situational Audience Analysis

• Physical Setting
• Disposition Toward the TOPIC
• Interest
• Prior Knowledge
• Attitude
• Disposition Toward the SPEAKER
• Disposition Toward the OCCASSION

Speaking to INFORM

Types of Informative Speeches

• Objects
• Processes
• Events
• Concepts

Guidelines for Informative Speaking

• Do NOT overestimate what the audience already knows.
• Relate the subject directly to the audience.
• Do not be too technical.
• Avoid abstractions.
• Personalize your ideas.

Speech #2 - Informative

• In FOUR minutes, give a speech that INFORMS the audience on a topic of your choice
• Provide specific facts
• This is NOT a persuasive argument