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Identify load bearing and non-loadbearing elements

Discuss how buildings can achieve structural stability

Produce movement and thermal expansion calculations

Aim: Understanding Structures in Construction Technology

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

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Load bearing and Non-loadbearing elements

Loadbearing Elements in a Building

Columns: Vertical supports that transfer loads from upper floors to the foundation
Walls: Vertical structures that carry the weight of the floors and roof and provide lateral stability
Beams: Horizontal members that distribute loads to the columns or walls
Foundation: The base of the building that transfers loads to the ground
Load-bearing walls: Walls designed to support the structure and carry vertical loads

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Load bearing and Non-loadbearing elements

Non-load bearing elements in a building

Interior partition walls: Walls used to divide interior spaces but do not support the building's weight
False ceilings: Decorative or functional ceilings suspended below the main structural ceiling
Non-structural facades: Exterior cladding that does not carry any significant weight
Curtain walls: Non-loadbearing walls attached to the building's structural frame to enclose the building while bearing minimal weight.

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Load bearing and non-loadbearing elements

Non-load bearing elements in a building

Windows and doors: Openings in the walls that do not contribute to the building's structural integrity
Interior finishes: Materials used for aesthetics, such as paint, wallpaper, and decorative panels
Temporary partitions: Non-loadbearing walls used to create flexible spaces in commercial or office settings
Balconies and canopies: Exterior features that are supported by the main structure but do not bear significant loads
Interior fixtures and fittings: Non-structural elements like cabinets, shelves, and lighting fixtures

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How to Identify Loadbearing and Non-loadbearing Elements:

Study the architectural plans and blueprints of the building to identify load-bearing elements, which are usually indicated by thicker lines or bold annotations
Look for vertical supports, such as columns and walls, that often carry the weight of the structure and are likely load-bearing elements
Check for the presence of large, heavy structural members, as they are more likely to be load-bearing elements
Examine the foundation layout to determine load-bearing walls that transfer the building's weight to the ground

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How to Identify Loadbearing and Non-loadbearing Elements:

Observe the arrangement of beams and trusses, as they are typically load-bearing elements responsible for distributing loads across the structure.
Look for structural elements that extend across multiple floors, as these are often load-bearing.
Seek professional guidance from structural engineers or architects who can accurately identify load-bearing elements based on their expertise and experience.

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Load bearing and Non-loadbearing Elements

Non-loadbearing elements are typically lightweight and decorative in nature, such as interior partition walls, false ceilings, and non-supportive facades

Non-loadbearing walls can often be identified by their thinner construction, as they are not designed to carry significant loads

Examine the building's layout and design; areas with more open spaces are likely to have fewer load-bearing elements and more non-loadbearing elements

Remember that alterations or removal of load-bearing elements without proper analysis and reinforcement can compromise the building's structural integrity, so consult professionals before making any changes.

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Structural Stability

Approved documents A of the Building Regulations 2010 provides practical guidance with respect to the structural stability requirements (loading, ground movement, and disproportionate collapse) of dwellings:

A1: The building shall be constructed so that the combined dead, imposed and wind loads are sustained and transmitted by it to the ground: safely; and without causing such deflection or deformation of any part of the building, or such movement of the ground, as will impair the stability of any part of another building.
A2: The building shall be constructed so that ground movement caused by: swelling, shrinkage or freezing of the subsoil; or land-slip or subsidence , will not impair the stability of any part of the building.
A3: The building shall be constructed so that in the event of an accident the building will not suffer collapse to an extent disproportionate to the cause.

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For Structural Stability of Buildings:

The different loadings on the structure: dead load, imposed load, wind load, etc.

Elements	Loading
Roof	Distributed loads. 1.0 kN/m² for spans not exceeding 12m. 1.5 kN/m² for spans not exceeding 6m.
Floors	Distributed load: 2.00 kN/m²
Ceilings	Distributed load: 0.25 kN/m² Together with concentrated load: 0.9 kN

Table 1. Imposed load (The Welsh Government, 2010)

BS 6399 : Part 1 : 1996: Code of practice for dead and imposed loads

BS 6399-2:1997 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for wind loads BRE digest 436 Parts 1, 2 and 3.

BS 6399-3:1998 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for imposed roof loads.

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For Stability and Safety of Buildings

The assembly of the structure
Overall size and proportioning of the building need to follow the guidance provided by the Approved document A.
The layout of internal and external walls should form a robust box structure in accordance with the provided guidance.
The internal and external walls are well connected by either masonry bonding or mechanical connections.

The roof and intermediate floors are well connected to the walls to provide adequate support and transfer of wind loads to the foundation/buttressing elements.

Figure 1. Size and proportion of residential buildings ≤ three storeys (The Welsh Government, 2010).

Figure 2. Size and proportion of non-residential buildings and residential annexes (The Welsh Government, 2010).

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For Stability and Safety of Buildings

The quality of the workmanship
Attention to detail.
Properly executed connections and joints.
Adherence to industry standards and building codes
Thorough inspections and rigorous testing
Continuous monitoring and quality control measures are implemented to identify and rectify potential issues
Effective collaboration and communication among all stakeholders

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For Stability and Safety of Buildings

The properties of the materials used for the construction
Use of high-quality materials.
Moisture movement and thermal movement due to seasonal variations in outdoor and indoor temperature.
Etc.

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Movement and Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion and movements affect building and civil engineering structures by causing stresses.
Thermal expansion refers to the dimensional changes or modifications in solid, liquid, and gas substances caused by temperature variation.
There are three types of thermal expansion:

Only the linear and superficial/area types will be considered in this class.

Linear thermal expansion

Superficial or area thermal expansion

Cubic or volumetric thermal expansion

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Thermal Expansion Formulas

Linear thermal expansion	Superficial/area thermal expansion	Cubical/volumetric thermal expansion

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Worked Example

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Self-assessment Task

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Minimising Movement and Thermal Expansion

Properly calculate and account for thermal expansion during the design phase of the building or structure.
Use materials with low coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) to reduce the impact of temperature changes.
Implement expansion joints in the structure to accommodate thermal movements at specific intervals.
Allow for gaps or spaces between different building elements to permit thermal expansion without causing damage.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYnZxgKhdTU

For concrete expansion joints, Hanson (n.d.) recommends:

Placing joints approximately 30 X slab thickness apart. E.g., for a slab which is 150mm thick, the joints should be placed around 4,500mm (4.5 metres) apart.
Joints are cut deep enough: about at least a quarter of the thickness of the slab. For a 100mm slab, cut the joints at least 25mm deep.

Figure 3. Expansion joints in bridges (Civil Tutor, 2023).

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Minimising Movement &�Thermal Expansion

Allow for gaps or spaces between different building elements to permit thermal expansion without causing damage.

Figure 5 Thermal expansion in brickwork (Pine Hall Brick, 2017).

Figure 4. Typical vertical movement joint spacing at an external return (Brick Development Association, 2023).

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Minimising Movement and �Thermal Expansion

Apply thermal insulation to minimise temperature variations and reduce the extent of thermal expansion.
Install proper ventilation and temperature control systems to regulate the internal temperature of the building or structure.
Design the structure with flexibility to accommodate thermal movement without compromising its integrity.
Avoid placing rigid connections between components that may restrict thermal expansion.
Utilise sliding connections or rolling supports in bridges and long structures to allow movement due to thermal effects.
Conduct regular inspections and maintenance to identify and address potential issues related to thermal expansion.

Figure 6. Sydney harbour bridge thermal expansion (Lesics, 2023).

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References/Bibliography

Brick Development Association (2023) Designing for movement in brickwork. Available at: https://www.brick.org.uk/uploads/downloads/03.-Designing-for-Movement-in-Brickwork-Technical-Guide-2023.f1678701377.pdf (Accessed: 21 July 2023)

Civil Tutor (2023) Expansion joints in bridges. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RlnpGYVE_YM&list=LL&index=2 (Accessed: 21 August 2023)

Emmitt, S. and Gorse, C. (2006) Barry’s advanced construction of buildings. Oxford: Blackwell publishing.

Hanson (n.d.) Available at: https://www.hanson.co.uk/en/ready-mixed-concrete/technical-information/concrete-expansion-joints-explained#:~:text=Place%20joints%20around%2030%20times,joints%20at%20least%2025mm%20deep. (Accessed: 21 August 2023)

Lesics (2023) The beautiful engineering behind the arch bridges! Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfPt8J95R-A&list=LL&index=1&t=5s (Accessed: 21 March 2023)

Pine Hall Brick (2017) Expansion joints. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cxen58pV9Lg (Accessed: 21 August 2023)

The Welsh Government (2010) Approved document A: structure. Available at: https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-04/170403building-regs-approved-document-a-structure-en.pdf (Accessed: 19 August 2023)

Virdi, S. (2012) Construction science and materials. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

X-engineer (2023). How to calculate thermal expansion. Available at: https://x-engineer.org/calculate-thermal-expansion/ (Accessed: 21 August 2023)