UNIT 4: Learning
Learning Targets
26-1 Define learning and identify some basic forms of learning.
26-2 Explain behaviorism’s view of learning.
26-3 Identify Pavlov, and describe the basic components of classical conditioning
26-4 Identify the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination in classical conditioning.
26-5 Summarize why Pavlov’s work remains so important.
26-6 Describe some applications of Pavlov’s work to human health and well-being, and explain how Watson applied Pavlov’s principles to learned fears.
What is learning?
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
The emphasis here is on enduring…learning is very different from cramming.
To truly learn, is to own the knowledge, skill or idea.
What are some ways we learn?
We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain (classical conditioning).
We learn to repeat acts that bring rewards and avoid acts that bring unwanted results (operant conditioning).
We learn by observing events and people
(observational learning).
We learn things we have neither experienced or observed (cognitive learning).
What examples can you think of in your life where you have learned through…
classical conditioning?
cognitive learning?
operant conditioning?
observational learning?
What is associative learning?
learning that certain events occur together
The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence
(as in operant conditioning).
The associations may be positive or negative.
How do positive associations factor in learning?
We tend to connect positive events when they occur in sequence.
If you hang out with a new group of classmates during lunch and have a great time laughing, the next time that group asks you to join them for lunch, you will associate them with fun and good times and eagerly agree to meet up with them.
How do negative associations factor in learning?
We tend to connect negative events when they occur in sequence.
If you put your hand on a hot stove and the heat burns you and causes you pain, you will now associate that stove with pain and be more careful the next time.
This is how we learn.
What are two types of associative learning?
classical conditioning
In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Stimuli are things we do not control and that we respond automatically (involuntary responses).
operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence. The behavior is voluntary, we operate on the environment to produce a consequence.
How do associations lead to habits?
Learned associations also feed our habitual behaviors.
(Wood et al., 2014)
The reason so many of us eat popcorn in the movie theater is that we have come to associate the movie theater with the buttery popcorn. For some, that habit is hard to break….enter a movie theater and BAM….
I want popcorn!
How do associations lead to habituation?
Other animals learn by association. Disturbed by a squirt of water, the sea slug Aplysia protectively withdraws its gill. If the squirts continue, as happens naturally in choppy water, the withdrawal response diminishes.
We say the slug habituates.
But if the sea slug repeatedly receives an
electric shock just after being squirted, its protective response to the squirt instead grows stronger. The animal has associated the squirt with the impending shock.
What is habituation?
Habituation is what happens when repeated stimulation produces waning responsiveness.
In the sea slug’s case…he ‘got used to’ the squirts from the choppy waters…just as you might ‘get used to’ cold ocean water after you have been in for awhile.
AP® Exam Tip 1
The AP® exam could have you differentiate similar concepts from various units.
For example, it’s easy to confuse habituation with
sensory adaptation, a concept
from Unit 3.
What is the difference between habituation and sensory adaptation?
habituation
Habituation is a type of learning or relatively permanent change in behavior that involves a reduced response as a result of repeated but not constant exposure.
sensory adaptation
Sensory adaption is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when the brain stops recognizing a constant and unchanging stimulus.
Have you habituated?
Take a moment to talk with a partner and come up with three instances of habituation in your life.
What stimulus or occurrence have you
‘gotten used to’?
What is a stimulus?
any event or situation that evokes a response
So… for the sea slug…the stimulus was the squirt from the choppy ocean waters or the electric shock from the researcher.
For the popcorn eater…the stimulus was the movie theater environment.
What is a response?
the behavior that follows the stimulus
For the sea slug…the involuntary behavior (classical conditioning) was the shirking.
For the popcorn eater…the voluntary behavior was the purchasing and eating of popcorn.
How is classical conditioning defined?
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves learned involuntary responses.
We associate stimuli that we do not control,
and we respond automatically
(exhibiting respondent behavior).
Involuntary responses include salivation, blinking, sweating, and cringing or the automatic bodily reactions to strong emotions such as fear.
How does classical conditioning occur?
We learn that a flash of
lightning signals an impending crack of thunder. These two events typically occur together and in sequence so we associate thunder bolts with lightning…very, very, frightening.
Because we have associated lightning with thunder, we expect to have one when we have the other. So upon seeing a crash of lightning, we automatically respond by tensing and anticipating the loud thunder boom.
How is operant conditioning defined?
we learn to associate a response (our voluntary behavior) and its consequence
Thus we (and other animals) learn to repeat voluntary acts followed by good results and avoid voluntary acts followed by bad results.
These associations produce operant
behaviors (which operate on the environment to produce a consequence).
How does operant conditioning occur?
We learn that a voluntary behavior or response of politeness, for example, is associated with the consequence of receiving a cookie.
The next time the opportunity presents itself, we repeat the voluntary behavior that had the positive �consequence the last time. �We associate the behavior with the consequence.
What are respondent behaviors and what are operant behaviors?
respondent behaviors
behavior that occurs
as an automatic
response to
some stimulus
…like the woman tensing for the thunder boom
operant behaviors
behavior that operates
on the environment,
producing
consequences
…like the boy saying ‘please’
Do classical and operant conditioning �work together?
Yes.
Consider the Japanese cattle ranch where the clever rancher outfitted his herd with electronic pagers which he called from his cell phone.
After a week of training, the animals learned to associate two stimuli—the beep of their pager and the
arrival of food (classical conditioning).
But they also learned to associate their hustling to the food trough with the pleasure of eating (operant conditioning), which simplified the rancher’s work.
What is behaviorism’s �view of learning?
According to John B. Watson, the science of psychology should study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments.
Psychology’s “goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of
its methods.”
Simply said, psychology should be an objective
science based on observable behavior.
Who was Ivan Pavlov?
Pavlov’s work laid the foundation for many of John B. Watson’s ideas.
Both believed the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals—
whether sea slugs or dogs or humans.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
What did Ivan Pavlov contribute to �the field of psychology?
Pavlov spent two decades studying dogs’ digestive system and earned
the Nobel Prize.
His experiments on learning produced the phenomenon we call classical conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Pavlov’s initial work.
Pavlov attached a tube in the dog’s cheek to collect saliva, which was measured in a cylinder outside the chamber.
What was Pavlov’s accidental discovery?
Without fail, putting food in a dog’s mouth
caused the animal to salivate.
But…. and this is cool…
the dog began salivating not only to the taste of the food, but also to the mere sight of the food, or the food dish, or the person delivering the food, or even at the sound of that person’s approaching footsteps.
Pavlov realized this behavior pointed to a simple but fundamental form of learning.
What are the components of �classical conditioning?
How are the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR) related?
Food in the mouth automatically, unconditionally,
triggers a dog’s salivary reflex. No training is
required for this automatic involuntary response.
Pavlov called this reflex an
unconditioned response (UR).
He called the food an unconditioned stimulus (US).
What is the neutral stimulus (NS)?
The tone or bell when activated produces no response.
Pavlov called the bell/tuning fork/buzzer the
neutral stimulus (NS).
What happens in a conditioning trial?
Pavlov conducted multiple trials pairing the neutral stimulus (NS) of the tone with the US of the food.
The unconditioned stimulus (US) of the food, though is what continues to produce the unconditioned response (UR) of the drool/salivation.
What are the conditioned response (CR) and conditioned stimulus (CS)?
Salivation in response to a tone, however, is learned. It is conditional upon the dog’s associating the tone with the food. This response is the conditioned response (CR).
The neutral stimulus (NS) that now triggers salivation is the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Can you label the components?
Work with a partner to correctly label
Pavlov’s classic experiment.
1. What Would You Answer?
In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus
Classical conditioning in your life
Think about events in your life: school, family, sports, clubs, jobs, etc.
Where can you see examples of
learning through classical conditioning?
Draw and label the main components of classical conditioning in your personal example.
AP® Exam Tip 2
Understanding the components of Pavlov’s classical conditioning will be important on the AP® exam.
Practice with many scenarios and make sure you can identify the US, CS, NS, UR and CR.
2. What Would You Answer?
Students are accustomed to a bell ringing to indicate the end of a class period. The principal decides to substitute popular music for the bell to indicate the end of each class period. Students quickly respond to the music in the same way they did to the bell. In this example, the music is a(n)
What is acquisition?
…in classical conditioning, the initial stage,
when one links a neutral stimulus
and an unconditioned stimulus
so that the neutral stimulus
begins triggering the conditioned involuntary response
…in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response or the decreasing of a punished response
Is onion breath attractive? It can be!
Onion breath does not usually produce sexual arousal. But when repeatedly paired with a passionate kiss, it can become a
CS and do just that.
How does classical conditioning �support reproduction?
Just before presenting an approachable female quail, researchers turned on a red light. Over time, the red light signaled the male quail to become excited.
Conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce—by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring. (Hollis, 1997)
What is higher-order conditioning?
a procedure in classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
For example, an animal that has learned that a tone
predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
(Also called second-order conditioning.)
What if the US is no �longer presented?
Pavlov wondered if the tone sounded
again and again, but no food appeared, would the tone still trigger salivation?
How does extinction occur?
when
an unconditioned stimulus (US)
does not follow a conditioned
stimulus (CS)
So, in this case, when food no longer follows the bell.
Interpret this graph.
Take a moment to discuss what this
graph is depicting.
Why do you think extinction occurs?
What is spontaneous recovery?
the reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response
AP® Exam Tip 3
Extinction and spontaneous recovery are two terms that frequently appear on the AP® exam.
It is key that you establish extinction has occurred before spontaneous recovery. In other words, make sure the reader of your FRQ knows you know the conditioned stimulus (bell) no longer produces the conditioned response (salivation/drool), then a pause occurs of days or weeks…then SPONTANEOUSLY, the CR occurs again WITHOUT any relearning or repairing with the US (meat).
What is generalization?
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned,
for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
So… if Pavlov’s dog learned to salivate to a tone, and the researcher then rang a bell, or played a note
on a flute, it may be that the dog drools to
those stimuli as well.
We would say the dog had generalized
his response to the stimulus.
How did Pavlov demonstrate generalization?
Pavlov attached miniature vibrators to various parts of a dog’s body.
After conditioning salivation to stimulation of the thigh, he stimulated other areas. The closer a stimulated spot was to the dog’s thigh, the stronger the conditioned response.
What conditioning principle is influencing �the snail’s affections?
What is discrimination?
the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
So if Pavlov only presented the food (US) after the bell (CS) but not the tone, tuning fork, or buzzer, the dog would learn to discriminate between the sounds and only drool (CR) to the bell.
Why does Pavlov’s work �remain so important?
Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning
that applies to all species.
What have been some applications �of Pavlov’s work to human �health and well-being?
Former drug users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using context—with people or in places they associate with previous highs. (Siegel, 2005)
People who struggle with their weight often have eaten unhealthy foods thousands of times, leaving them with strongly conditioned responses to eat the very foods that will keep them in poor health. (Hill, 2007)
When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response. (Ader & Cohen, 1985).
How did Watson apply Pavlov’s �principles to learned fears?
Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses.
Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.
What did Watson and Rayner do?
John B. Watson and his graduate assistant Rosalie Rayner conditioned “Little Albert” to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat
was presented.
How did Little Albert learn to fear rats?
After seven repeats of seeing the rat and hearing
the frightening noise, Albert burst into tears
at the mere sight of the rat.
How did Little Albert generalize his learning?
Five days later, he had generalized this startled fear reaction to the sight of a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat, but not to dissimilar objects, such as toys.
Can you label?
In these experiments, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
Learning Target 26-1 Review
Define learning and identify some
basic forms of learning.
Learning Target 26-1 Review cont.
Define learning and identify some
basic forms of learning.
Learning Target 26-2 Review
Explain behaviorism’s view of learning.
Learning Target 26-3 Review
Identify Pavlov, and describe the basic
components of classical conditioning.
Learning Target 26-4 Review
Identify the processes of acquisition,
in classical conditioning.
Learning Target 26-4 Review cont.
Identify the processes of generalization, spontaneous recovery, extinction, and discrimination in classical conditioning.
Learning Target 26-5 Review
Summarize why Pavlov’s work
remains so important.
Learning Target 26-6 Review
Describe some applications of Pavlov’s
work to human health and well-being,
and explain how Watson applied Pavlov’s
principles to learned fears
Learning Target 26-6 Review cont.
Describe some applications of Pavlov’s
work to human health and well-being,
and explain how Watson applied Pavlov’s
principles to learned fears