1 of 86

Bridging the species gap

Sreya Mariyam Salim

Specialty doctor

2 of 86

3 of 86

4 of 86

5 of 86

6 of 86

“Paws”

7 of 86

8 of 86

9 of 86

10 of 86

11 of 86

Part 1:

Human- Animal Bond

Part 2:

Animals in mental health

Part 3:

Mental health in animals

12 of 86

13 of 86

14 of 86

‘Complex and multifaceted’

15 of 86

Prato-Previde E et al., 2022, Animals

Empathy

Attachment

Anthropomorphism

Three Human Psychological Mechanisms

16 of 86

�Empathy�

17 of 86

“Sympathy beyond the confines of man, that is, humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest moral acquisitions (…). This virtue, one of the noblest which man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings.”

Charles Darwin “The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex”, 1871

18 of 86

Which animals?

“All animals are equal,

but some are more equal than others”

- George Orwell

19 of 86

The Big Four

L. Paulhus D, 2023, InTechOpen

Perceived intelligence

Size

Aesthetic appeal

Lack of harmfulness

20 of 86

Perceived intelligence:

Attributions of intelligence
Tightly linked to attributions of sentience (i.E., Self-awareness and consciousness)

Size

May be linked to more apparent pain in larger animals

L. Paulhus D, 2023, InTechOpen

21 of 86

Aesthetic appeal

Physical attractiveness
Butterflies> caterpillers

Harmfulness

Less empathy for predatory and harmful animals

L. Paulhus D, 2023, InTechOpen

22 of 86

23 of 86

24 of 86

Results have been replicated across 40 years of research from many laboratories and many countries.
Ranking high were monkeys, elephants, dogs, and cats.
Sharks, cockroaches, and snakes drew the least empathy.

L. Paulhus D, 2023, InTechOpen

25 of 86

Younger versions of the same species (e.g., kittens vs. cats) elicited even more empathy.
Parental instincts
The baby schema
Some raters had more empathy for puppies than adult humans

Kawaguchi Y et al., 2023, Scientific reports

Borgi M et al., 2014, Frontiers in psychology

26 of 86

27 of 86

Does Human-animal empathy predict human-human empathy?

Lack of evidence and conflicting results
Can somewhat predict
Weak to moderate relationship
Some people may have stronger empathy towards animals, especially younger animals than humans

Paul, 2000, Anthrozoos

Gomez Neal et al., 2021, PeerJ

28 of 86

29 of 86

Anthropomorphism

30 of 86

Our brain has a tendency to give human qualities to non-human things
“WCCIS is stubborn today”
“My car is refusing to start”
‘Humanize’

Esmeralda G et al., 2015, Animal behaviour

Anthropomorphism

31 of 86

32 of 86

33 of 86

Sense of human connection in non-human companionship
Higher in lonely people, people lacking social skills, insecure-anxious attachment styles

Paul E S et al., 2014, Anthrozoos

34 of 86

Which animals?

35 of 86

36 of 86

37 of 86

The dark side of anthropomorphism

Mota-Rojas D, 2021, Animals

38 of 86

How accurate are we?

39 of 86

40 of 86

41 of 86

Attachment

42 of 86

Attachment

Parent child bond
Proximity seeking
Separation distress
‘Safe haven’ effect
‘Secure base’ effect

Kurdek, L. A. (2009). Journal of family psychology

43 of 86

The roles are flexible!�

Kurdek, L. A. (2009). Journal of family psychology

44 of 86

Participants were more likely to turn to their dogs than they were to turn to their mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters, best friends, and children but less likely to turn to their dogs than to their romantic partners.

It is concluded that some owners develop attachment bonds with their pet dogs.

45 of 86

“The cats look after me”

46 of 86

Empathy

Attachment

Anthropomorphism

47 of 86

Why ‘Unconventional’ pets?

48 of 86

Emotional attachment
Fascination with rarity
Desire to bring wilderness into home
Desire for a special bond with non-traditional animals
Social trends
Cultural perceptions
Media representations
Status and uniqueness

Hausmann et al., 2023, Biological conservation
Kieswetter S, 2017, Zoocheck

49 of 86

Personality of owners??
No relation found

50 of 86

Part 2

Animals in psychiatry

51 of 86

Conduct disorder

52 of 86

Animal hoarding

Accumulation of large numbers of animals
Previously considered a lifestyle
Under hoarding disorder in DSM 5 TR

Patroneck G, 2011, The International Handbook of Animal Abuse and Cruelty

53 of 86

‘Overwhelmed caregivers’

Initially provide proper care, but eventually become overwhelmed
Self-esteem is linked to the role of caregiver

Patronek G, 1999, Public Health Rep

Patroneck G et al., 2006, Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium

54 of 86

‘Rescue hoarders’

Saving animals is a mission
Believe they can save all animals by taking them home

Patronek G, 1999, Public Health Rep

Patroneck G et al., 2006, Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium

55 of 86

‘Exploiter hoarders’

Acquire animals for their own needs
Lack empathy and indifferent to suffering
Often associated with personality disorders and criminal behaviour

Patronek G, 1999, Public Health Rep

Patroneck G et al., 2006, Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium

56 of 86

‘The Pet Effect’

dd

57 of 86

Physical activity: Moderately significant positive effect
Mental health: Significant impact but with a low effect size

58 of 86

The Pet Effect

Better social support
More life satisfaction and happiness
More positive relationships
Better mood
Better coping

Martins, C. F et al., 2023, Frontiers in public health

59 of 86

A Wide range of emotional health benefits from childhood pet ownership.

The review found evidence for an association between pet ownership and a wide range of emotional health benefits from childhood pet ownership; particularly for self-esteem and loneliness. The findings regarding childhood anxiety and depression were inconclusive. Studies also showed evidence of an association between pet ownership and educational and cognitive benefits; for example, in perspective-taking abilities and intellectual development. Evidence on behavioural development was unclear due to a lack of high quality research. Studies on pet ownership and social development provided evidence for an association with increased social competence; social networks; social interaction and social play behaviour. Overall, pet ownership and the significance of children's bonds with companion animals have been underexplored; there is a shortage of high quality and longitudinal studies in all outcomes. Prospective studies that control for a wide range of confounders are required.

60 of 86

Which pet species?

Lack of evidence
Overall, dogs have been favoured

Quality of life
Life satisfaction

Pruchno et al., 2018, Anthrozoos

Reis et al., 2017, European Journal of Developmental Psychology

61 of 86

Animal assisted therapy

Incorporation of a qualified therapy animal with a human handler into the therapy process.

Chandler, 2021, Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging

62 of 86

Animal-Assisted Activity

63 of 86

Animal assisted therapy

Cognitive behavioural
Mindfulness based
Psychodynamic (Attachment-based)…

Kunzi P et al., 2022, Scientific reports

Zilcha-Mano S et al., 2011, Attachment and human development

64 of 86

Animal assisted therapy

Most studied conditions: Depression, PTSD, Schizophrenia, Dementia, Substance use disorders
Primarily dogs and horses
Also cattles, small farm animals, dolphins, fish, caged birds

Charry-Sánchez, J. D et al., 2018, Complementary therapies in clinical practice

65 of 86

Service animals in psychiatry

Clinically meaningful, significant, and large effect on PTSD severity scores

66 of 86

Service animals in psychiatry

Most of the research is on PTSD and service dogs
Potential in anxiety disorders, depression, neurodevelopmental disorders

67 of 86

Part 3- �Mental Health in Animals

68 of 86

69 of 86

70 of 86

Cribbing in horses

OCD
Boredom, Stress
Treated with opioid antagonists, SSRI
Different in other animals

71 of 86

PTSD in animals

After natural disasters, animal abuse, military operations, escaping predators
5% of the dogs deployed in Afghanistan

Kumar, R, 2017, Can animals suffer from PTSD?

72 of 86

73 of 86

74 of 86

Substance use in animals

Monkeys, especially Rhesus monkeys develop a preference to alcohol, sugary substances
‘Bees prefer caffeine-laden nectar
Elephants seek out fermented fruit

Primates: Primates, such as monkeys, have shown they can develop a preference for alcohol. Specifically rhesus macaques have been observed drinking ethanol solutions. Similar to humans, some would drink in moderation and other monkeys would drink until visibly impaired, stumbling and falling—behaviour strikingly similar to human alcohol addiction. Monkeys have also been known to develop a strong preference for sugary substances, which can be another form of addiction.

Rodents: In laboratory settings, rodents like rats and mice are commonly used to study addiction, most famously in the 1970s “Rat Park” experiment. These animals quickly develop dependencies on substances such as cocaine, heroin, and nicotine. They often press levers repeatedly to self-administer drugs, sometimes to the point of neglecting food and water, which leads to severe health decline or even death. Additionally, they may experience withdrawal symptoms, including depression and anxiety.

Bees: Bees have been shown to develop a preference for caffeine-laden nectar, as some plants naturally produce caffeine, which enhances bees memory of the plant’s location and encourages them to return. This dependency-like behaviour suggests the impact caffeine has on reward pathways in animals as small as insects.

Elephants: These majestic animals are known to consume fermented fruits, mainly narula fruit. There’s plenty of debate about whether or not elephants are actually capable of becoming intoxicated, but there is some evidence to suggest that the tusked beasts actively seek out and consume large amounts of this fruit, with the aim of becoming intoxicated.

Dolphins: These intelligent marine mammals have been observed deliberately interacting with toxic pufferfish, using them to induce a narcotic-like state, mirroring the way a human seeks out their next high in the height of their addiction.

Pigeons: Some studies have found that pigeons, when given the option to choose between guaranteed food rewards and the chance for a larger reward with a higher risk, will often opt for the uncertain option, mirroring human gambling behaviour. This suggests that the urge for reward-seeking in the face of risk is not unique to humans.

1 of 86

2 of 86

3 of 86

4 of 86

5 of 86

6 of 86

7 of 86

8 of 86

9 of 86

10 of 86

11 of 86

12 of 86

13 of 86

14 of 86

15 of 86

16 of 86

17 of 86

18 of 86

19 of 86

20 of 86

21 of 86

22 of 86

23 of 86

24 of 86

25 of 86

26 of 86

27 of 86

28 of 86

29 of 86

30 of 86

31 of 86

32 of 86

33 of 86

34 of 86

35 of 86

36 of 86

37 of 86

38 of 86

39 of 86

40 of 86

41 of 86

42 of 86

43 of 86

44 of 86

45 of 86

46 of 86

47 of 86

48 of 86

49 of 86

50 of 86

51 of 86

52 of 86

53 of 86

54 of 86

55 of 86

56 of 86

57 of 86

58 of 86

59 of 86

60 of 86

61 of 86

62 of 86

63 of 86

64 of 86

65 of 86

66 of 86

67 of 86

68 of 86

69 of 86

70 of 86

71 of 86

72 of 86

73 of 86

74 of 86

75 of 86

76 of 86

77 of 86

78 of 86

79 of 86

80 of 86