MOTIVATION

MEANING

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can be -

• desire for money
• success
• recognition
• job-satisfaction
• team work, etc

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NATURE OF MOTIVATION

1. Motivation is an internal feeling of an individual.
2. Motivation is a continuous process that produces goal directed behaviour.
3. Motivation is a complex process. Individuals may differ in their motivation even through they are performing the same type job.
4. Motives ofvan individual change from time to time, even though he may continue to behave in the same way.
5. Motivation is different from satisfaction. Motivation implies a drive towards an outcome while satisfaction involves outcomes already experienced.

MASLOW’S NEED HIRARCHY MODEL

History

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was first introduced in Abraham Maslow’s 1943 paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation”. Maslow later refined this theory in 1954 with his book, “Motivation and Personality“. Since then, this theory has remained a popular subject in sociology, management training, and psychology classes.

Levels of Hierarchy

There are five main levels to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. These levels begin from the most basic needs to the most advanced needs. Maslow originally believed that a person needed to completely satisfy one level to begin pursuing further levels.

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MASLOW’S NEED HIRARCHY MODEL

• Physiological Needs- Physiological needs are the lowest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They are the most essential things a person needs to survive. They include the need for shelter, water, food, warmth, rest, and health. A person’s motivation at this level derives from their instinct to survive.
• Safety Needs- The second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consists of safety needs. Safety, or security needs, relate to a person’s need to feel safe and secure in their life and surroundings. Motivation comes from the need for law, order, and protection from unpredictable and dangerous conditions.
• Social Needs- The third level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is love and social needs. Humans are social creatures that crave interaction with others. This level of the hierarchy outlines the need for friendship, intimacy, family, and love. Humans have the need to give and receive love; to feel like they belong in a group. When deprived of these needs, individuals may experience loneliness or depression.

MASLOW’S NEED HIRARCHY MODEL

• Esteem Needs- The fourth level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is esteem needs. Esteem needs are related to a person’s need to gain recognition, status, and feel respected. Once someone has fulfilled their love and belonging needs, they seek to fulfill their esteem needs.
• Self-Actualization Needs- The fifth and final level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is self-actualization needs. Self-actualization relates to the realization of an individual’s full potential. At this level, people strive to become the best that they possibly can be. For example-

MASLOW’S NEED HIRARCHY MODEL

HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE MODEL

Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are two factors that an organization can adjust to influence motivation in the workplace.

These factors are:

Motivators: Which can encourage employees to work harder. The presence of motivators causes employees to work harder. They are found within the actual job itself

Hygiene factors: These won’t encourage employees to work harder but they will cause them to become unmotivated if they are not present.

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Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation tries to get to the root of motivation in the workplace. A manager can leverage this theory to help you get the best performance from his team.

The two factors identified by Herzberg are motivators and hygiene factors.

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HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE MODEL

Motivating Factors includes

1. Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. This will provide a proud feeling of having done something difficult but worthwhile.
2. Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their successes. This recognition should come from both their superiors and their peers.
3. The work itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide enough of a challenge to keep employees motivated.
4. Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. They should hold themselves responsible for this completion and not feel as though they are being micromanaged.
5. Advancement: Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee.
6. Growth: The job should give employees the opportunity to learn new skills. This can happen either on the job or through more formal training.

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HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE MODEL

Hygiene factors includes

1. Company policies: These should be fair and clear to every employee. They must also be equivalent to those of competitors.
2. Supervision: Supervision must be fair and appropriate. The employee should be given as much autonomy as is reasonable.
3. Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or cliques. A healthy, amiable, and appropriate relationship should exist between peers, superiors, and subordinates.
4. Work conditions: Equipment and the working environment should be safe, fit for purpose, and hygienic.
5. Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It should also be competitive with other organizations in the same industry.
6. Status: The organization should maintain the status of all employees within the organization. Performing meaningful work can provide a sense of status.
7. Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure and they are not under the constant threat of being laid-off.

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HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE MODEL

VROOM’S VALENCE-EXPECTANCY THEORY

Attacking Herzberg’s two-factor theory, vroom offered an expectancy approach to the understanding of motivation. According to him, a person’s motivation towards an action at any time would be determined by his anticipated values of all the outcomes of the action multiplied by the strength of that person’s expectancy that the outcome would yeild the desire goal. In other words, motivation is the product of anticipated worth to a person of an actionand the perceived probability that the persons goals would be achieved.

The theory suggests that although individuals may have different sets of goals, they can be motivated if they believe that:

• There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
• Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
• The rewardwill satisfy an important need,
• The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

VROOM’S VALENCE-EXPECTANCY THEORY

Vroom’s theory may be expressed by the following formula :

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FORCE= VALENCE×EXPECTANCY×INSTRUMENTALITY.

1. Valence - Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction] rewards). Management must discover what employees value.
2. Expectancy - Employeess have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing. Management must discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.
3. Instrumentality - Thee perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has been promised by a manager. Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.
4. Force – Where force is the strength of a person’s motivation.

VROOM’S VALENCE-EXPECTANCY THEORY

Conclusion

Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain.

In essence, Vroom emphasised the importance of individual perception and assessments of organisational behaviour. What is important here is that what the individual perceives as the consequence of a perticular behaviour is far more important than what the manager belives the individual should perceive. Thus, Vroom’s model attempts to explain how individual’s goals influence his efforts and like Maslow’s and Herzberg’s models, reveals that behaviour is goal-oriented.

VROOM’S VALENCE-EXPECTANCY THEORY

MCGREGOR’E ‘THEORY X’ AND 'THEORY Y’

In the 1960s, social psychologist Douglas McGregor developed two contrasting theories that explained how managers' beliefs about what motivates their people can affect their management style. He labelled these Theory X and Theory Y. These theories continue to be important even today.

Douglas McGregor work is established in motivation theory. Mr. McGregor postulated 2 theories on human management and leadership which are Theory X and Theory Y.

• Theory X advanced the view that human beings have an innate dislike for work. They can only be made to get results at work by the application of coercive methods and by direction. Theory X stresses on the authoritarian style of leadership where results are the focus of leadership and it is more work-centered than people-centered.
• Theory Y approach to management is more people-centered. Here the individual is valued and appreciated. Theory Y submits that when workers are given the right kind of environment, they can reach their highest potential and can be of great value to their organizations.

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MCGREGOR’E ‘THEORY X’ AND 'THEORY Y’

Theory X

Theory X indicates the traditional approach to managerial motivation and control. It represents old stereotyped and authoritarian management style of motivation. The underlying assumptions of this theory are as follows :

1. The average human being is basically lazy and has inherent dislike of work. He will avoid work, if he can
2. Most people lack ambition. They are not interested in achivement. They like to be directed.
3. Most people’s have little capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems.
4. Most people are indifferent to the organisational goals.
5. Most people must be closely controlled and threatened to achieve organisational goals.
6. Motivation of average human being occurs at the psychological (food, clothing, shelter, etc.) and safety levels.

MCGREGOR’E ‘THEORY X’ AND 'THEORY Y’

Theory Y

Theory Y managers have an optimistic, positive opinion of their people, and they use a decentralized, participative management style. This encourages a more collaborative, trust-based  relationship between managers and their team members.

1. Happy to work on their own initiative. Work as natural as play, if conditions are favorable.
2. More involved in decision making. Commitment to objectives is a function of reward associated with their achievement.
3. Self-motivated to complete their tasks. Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organisational goals.
4. Enjoy taking ownership of their work. Solve problems creatively and imaginatively.
5. Seek and accept responsibility, and need little direction.
6. View work as fulfilling and challenging.

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MCGREGOR’E ‘THEORY X’ AND 'THEORY Y’

PORTER AND LAWLER’S MODEL

Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. They say that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model suggested by them encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance. They proposed a multivariate model to explain the complex relationship that exists between satisfaction and performance. What is the main point in Porter and Lawler's model is that effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance. 

This model encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance. The emphasis in expectancy theory on rationality and expectations seems to us to describe best kinds of cognition that influence managerial performance.

PORTER AND LAWLER’S MODEL

• Effort : Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors: (i) value of reward and (ii) perception of effort-reward probability.
• Performance : One's effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be. However, the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and role perception of the employee.
• Satisfaction : Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the amount of rewards achieved. If the amount of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the employee will feel satisfied and vice-versa.
• Rewards : Rewards may be of two kinds - intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards are such as a sense of accomplishment and self-actualization. Extrinsic rewards may include working conditions and status. A fair degree of research supports that the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.

PORTER AND LAWLER’S MODEL

MCCLELLAND’S THREE NEED MODEL

David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "The Achieving Society." He identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a need for achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power. People will have different characteristics depending on their dominant motivator.

According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory).

McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This dominant motivator is largely dependent on our culture and life experiences.

These charecters are as follows :

MCCLELLAND’S THREE NEED MODEL

Dominant Motivater : Achivement

1. Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.
2. Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.
3. Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements.
4. Often likes to work alone.

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MCCLELLAND’S THREE NEED MODEL

Dominant Motivater : Affiliation

1. Wants to belong to the group.
2. Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group wants to do.
3. Favors collaboration over competition.
4. Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty.

Dominant Motivater : Power

1. Wants to control and influence others.
2. Likes to win arguments.
3. Enjoys competition and winning.
4. Enjoys status and recognition.

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MCCLELLAND’S THREE NEED MODEL

JOB ENRICHMENT

Job enrichment attempts to give employees greater responsibility by increasing the range and complexity of tasks they are called upon to complete and giving them the necessary authority. It motivates by giving employees the opportunity to use their abilities to the fullest.

In other words, it means adding a few more motivators to a job to make it more rewarding. To be specific, a job is enriched when the nature of the job is exciting, challenging and creative, or given the job holder more decision-making, planning and controlling power. Thus, job enrichment loads the job vertically. It tries to deal with dissatisfaction by increasing job depth as work activities from a vertical slice of the organisational unit are combined in one job.

Job enrichment is based upon the intrinsic reward theory – the reward should be built into the job. It is more effective and long-lasting than extrinsic rewards which are in the form of additional benefits like productivity bonus, better pay, perks, etc. Job enrichment makes the job more pleasant and gives a sense of accomplishment.

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JOB ENRICHMENT

1. Direct Feedback : The employees of the organisation should be able to get immediate knowledge of the results they are achieving through job-enrichment.
2. Scheduling Own Work : In job enrichment, an employee will be able to enjoy freedom to schedule his own work. Deciding when to tackle which assignment is an example of self-scheduling.
3. Uniquee Experience: An enriched job will have some unique qualities or features like quality controller visiting a supplier
4. Controll over Resources :Under job enrichment, each employee will have control over his resources and expenses
5. Personal Accountability :An enriched job holds an employee responsible for the results. Because he receives praise for good work and blame for bad work.

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