Unit 7:

Motivation Emotion and Personality

7.1 Theories of Motivation

7.2 Motivation Systems

7.3 Theories of Emotions

7.4 Stress and Coping

7.6a Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality - Freud

7.6b Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality - Neo Freudians

7.7 Social Cognitive Theory of Personality

7.8 Humanistic Psychology

7.9 Trait Theories

7.10 Tests of Personality

MrGalusha.org

7.1 Theories of Motivation

Instinct

Drive

Drive Reduction Theory

Homeostasis

Arousal Theory

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization

Incentives

Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

Overjustification Effect

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Motives vs. Emotions

• Motive
• Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior
• a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.
• Motives are different from emotions
• Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior
• You are more likely to predict behavior that results from a motive than an emotion.

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Instincts are for animals NOT humans.

• Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout the species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951).

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Outline

Humans don’t have instincts

Humans don’t have instincts

• This theory fell out of favor in psychology
• A Meta-analysis during the height of this craze found 5759 ‘instincts’
• Most important human behaviors are learned
• Human behavior is rarely inflexible and found throughout the species
• Humans have reflexes but not instincts.
• However, we may be predisposed to act certain ways due to adaptations from ancestral past– See Evolutionary Psychology

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Motives

Step 1: a need or desire that energizes behavior (we call these drives)

Step 2: directs it towards a goal

Biological Drives (Primary Drives)

• Unlearned drive based on a physiological state found in all animals
• Motivate behavior necessary for survival (fighting and fleeing – controlled by a brain region called the amygdala).
• Many drives are initiated in the Hypothalamus
• Hunger
• Thirst
• Sex
• Evolutionary psychology talks about the four Fs (fighting, fleeing, feeding and reproducing).

Homeostasis – explains why we stop fulfilling biological drives.

• The ability or tendency of an organism to maintain internal equilibrium or balance.
• A state of psychological equilibrium obtained when tension or a drive has been reduced or eliminated.
• We fulfill drives until we reach homeostasis (balance)

Secondary Drives – These are not biologically dictated

• Learned drives
• Wealth
• Success
• Fame

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Primary vs. Secondary Drives

• Primary (Biological) Drives push us to act.
• Secondary Drives pull at our actions.
• When BOTH are combined we are highly motivated.

How do we even learn �those secondary drives?

Operant Conditioning

• Your behavior is motivated to get rewards or to avoid punishment.

Go to work

Come home

at curfew

Now let’s talk about the goals

Incentives!

• Incentives – environmental cues that trigger a motive(desire) for a reward.
• When a stimulus in your environment creates goal-directed behavior.

Two General Types of Rewards

• INtrinsic – from the action itself or from within
• EXtrinsic – for something else

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Intrinsic Motivators

• Refers to motivation that comes from inside an individual rather than from any external or outside rewards, such as money or grades.
• It is stronger than external motivation

Extrinsic Motivators

• Refers to motivation that comes from external or outside rewards, such as money or grades.

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Theories of Motivation

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• Drive-Reduction Theory
• Arousal Theory
• Hierarchy of Motives

Drive-Reduction Theory

• A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a primary drive)
• This tension motivates an organism to satisfy the need

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Tension

Drive Reduction

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Food

Drive

Reduction

Organism

• The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis (the maintenance of a steady internal state – balance.)

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Stomach Full

Empty Stomach

(Food Deprived)

Drive Reduction Theory

• Strengths
• Does a nice job explaining most primary drives
• Falls apart with more complex primary drives and with most secondary drives

Outline

Arousal Theory

• Arousal means a level of alertness and attentiveness
• Arousal theory says we week the best level of alertness for us at any given time
• Sometimes we want lots of arousal
• Sometimes we want very low arousal

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• Some of us tend to want more and some of us tend to want less.

Arousal Theory

• People do things in order to seek out an optimal level of excitement at any given moment.
• I want a high level or arousal – let’s do something epic tonight.
• I want a low level of arousal – let’s stay in tonight.
• I am bored with my life I need a new job.
• I am stressed at work, let’s take a vacation.

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

• States that if you want to perform well at a task you have to look at two things: the difficulty of the task and your arousal level.
• Difficult tasks are best with moderate arousal
• Simple tasks are best with higher arousal

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Arousal Theory

• Strengths
• Does a nice job explaining most secondary drives.
• Weakness
• Doesn’t show how we prioritize our motives . . .

Outline

Hierarchy of Needs

• Abraham Maslow (1970)
• He created categories of needs
• He suggested that certain needs have priority over others.

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(1908-1970)

Hierarchy of Needs

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Maslow’s Hierarchy

• Strengths
• Shows how we prioritize our motives
• Explains why some people can forego basic needs
• Weakness
• Not based on empirical research

Outline

7.2 Specific Topics in Motivation

Glucose/Insulin

Leptin

Lateral Hypothalamus

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Satiety

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Sex

Androgens

Estrogen

Sexual Response Cycle

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7.2

• Motivation Systems
• Thirst
• Hunger
• Sex

Thirst

• Biology of Thirst
• Hypothalamus helps monitor the level of fluids inside the cells
• When levels drop, the thirst drive is activated
• Environmental cues (incentives) can also activate this drive.
• We would explain this using the Drive Reduction Theory

Summary

The Biology of Hunger

Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

Stomachs Removed

Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food).

Glucose: C₆H₁₂O₆

The glucose level in blood is maintained by your pancreas. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, when the level gets too low, we feel hungry.

Glucose Molecule

Glucose & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.

Rat Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic Centers

• The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (when stimulated lab animals ate!).
• Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating.
• The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads one to eat

Hypothalamic Centers

• The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (satiety)
• Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Richard Howard

Leptin

• Fat cells in our body produce leptin
• Hypothalamus monitors these levels
• High levels of leptin signal the brain to reduce appetite or increase the rate at which fat is burned.
• Leptin deficiency can cause obesity

Serotonin

• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that among other things, acts as appetite suppressant.
• It curbs cravings and shuts off appetite.
• It is a natural mood regulator, serotonin makes you feel emotionally stable, less anxious, more tranquil and even more focused and energetic.
• Serotonin can be made only after sweet or starchy carbohydrates are eaten

Biology of Hunger

• Body - Stomach Contractions
• Brain - Hypothalamus
• Lateral Hypothalamus - hunger center
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus - satiety center (full)
• Body Chemicals
• Glucose - low levels cause hunger
• Leptin - high levels make you feel full
• Orexin - neurotransmitter that in the LH that causes hunger
• Serotonin- neurotransmitter that can decrease appetite in high quantities.

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The Psychology of Hunger

• Incentives (environmental cues) can trigger the biological responses
• Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rodin et al., 1998).
• Emotional attachment? (Serotonin)
• Social expectations
• Conditioning
• Culture

Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only how much or when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for!

Richard Olsenius/ Black Star

Victor Englebert

Hot Cultures like Hot Spices

Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.

Diet Industry

• $78 Billion dollar a year industry (including diet books, diet drugs and weight-loss surgeries.)
• 85% of customers are females
• It has a failure rate in the 90s.

Set-Point Theory

• According to the set-point theory, there is a control system built into every person dictating how much fat they should carry – a kind of thermostat for body fat.
• Some individuals have a high setting, others have a low one.
• According to this theory, body fat percentage and bodyweight are matters of internal controls that are set differently in different people.

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How to change the set point

• Dieting does nothing
• Dieting research demonstrates that the body has more than one way to defend its fat stores.
• Long-term caloric deprivation, in a way that is not clear, acts as a signal for the body to turn down its metabolic rate.
• The body reacts to stringent dieting as though famine has set in. Within a day or two after semi-starvation begins, the metabolic machinery shifts to a cautious regimen designed to conserve the calories it already has on board. Because of this innate biological response, dieting becomes progressively less effective,
• A plateau is reached at which further weight loss seems all but impossible.

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How to change the set point

• The ideal approach to weight control would be a safe method that lowers or raises the set point rather than simply resisting it.
• So far no one knows for sure how to change the set point, but some theories exist.
• regular exercise is the most promising as a sustained increase in physical activity seems to lower the setting

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Messing with Set-Point

• Studies show that a person’s weight at the set point is optimal for efficient activity and a stable, optimistic mood.
• When the set point is driven too low, depression and lethargy may set in as a way of slowing the person down and reducing the number of calories expended.

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Sexual Motivation

• Sex
• a physiologically based motive (testosterone, limbic system, pheromones)
• but it is more affected by learning and values

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Sexual Motivation

• Same drives, different attitudes

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Sexual Motivation

• Births to unwed parents

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Contrast Effect

• when partners view pictures of idealized individuals (genetically rare, plastic surgery enhanced photoshopped simulacra) they rate their own partners less positively.
• In an even more disturbing study, men reported lower levels of LOVE and COMMITMENT to their current partners after viewing Playboy centerfolds

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7.3 Theories of Emotion

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Schachter’s Two Factor Theory

Canon-Bard Theory

Joseph LeDoux’s Theory

Primary Emotions

Display Rules

Microexpressions��F. Compare and contrast major theories of emotion.�G. Describe how cultural influences shape emotional expression, including variations in body language.

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Emotions

• A feeling such as happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise and fear
• It involves
• 1. Bodily Reactions - a body reaction like your heart racing
• 2. Expressive behaviors - a smile
• 3. Cognitions - thoughts about it happening

It all starts with a stimulus

• A stimulus is any object or event that causes a response
• After exposure to a stimulus, sensory signals are transmitted to the thalamus.
• Once the thalamus receives the signal, it relays the information to two structures: the amygdala and the brain cortex.
• Amygdala will control the body’s reaction
• Brain cortex will start to think about the stimulus

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• Bodily Reactions: Autonomic Nervous System

A division of our nervous system that does two things:

• gets us ready to deal with times of crisis and stress (sympathetic nervous system)
• calms us down when we no longer need to deal with that emergency (parasympathetic nervous system)

It is activated by a distress signal from the amygdala

2. Expressive Behaviors

3. Cognitions

• It may be consciously labeling something
• It may also occur automatically as we mentally file something as dangerous or not dangerous (appraisal)

Sensory input can get routed in two ways

High Road - Cognitions

• Stimulus goes to the thalamus and then gets sent to the brain’s cortex so you can think about it and then send it to the amygdala if it looks dangerous

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Low Road - Bodily Reactions

• Stimulus goes to the thalamus and then gets sent to the amygdala to allow for a quicker response

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High Road

Low Road

What causes our emotions?

Does your bodily reaction cause them?

Maybe your thoughts cause them?

Opposites

James Lange Theory

• Emotions are caused by our body’s having a reaction to a stimulus.

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Stimulus -> Body Reaction -> Emotion

Cognitive Appraisal (Lazarus)

• Emotions are caused by our thinking (appraisal) (conscious or not) about a stimulus

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Stimulus -> Cognition -> Emotion

Schachter’s Two Factor Theory

FACTOR 1

A Stimulus causes a bodily reaction

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FACTOR 2

Then we interpret the situation (cognitive appraisal) and label it.

Emotion

Cannon Bard Theory

• All this theory does is go against James Lange
• It says that your body does not cause the emotion. They happen simultaneously and are NOT CONNECTED
• Your thalamus sends the signal to your amygdala for a bodily reaction
• And to the cerebral cortex causing the awareness of the emotion.
• Basically it says it follows the low and high roads but one does not cause the other.

LeDoux’s Theory

Low Road

• Fear provoking stimuli follow the Low Road
• Thalamus to the amygdala for immediate bodily reaction

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Theories of Emotion

• James Lange Theory - Body causes emotion
• Cannon Bard - Body reaction and emotional awareness happen simultaneously and independently of one another
• Cognitive Appraisal theory - Thinking causes emotion
• Schachter’s Two Factor Theory - Body and Thinking cause emotion
• LeDoux Theory - fear-provoking stimuli travel the low road

Primary Emotions

• Happy, Sad, Disgust, Fear, Anger, and Surprise
• Found across all cultures
• Have a facial expression associated with it across cultures
• Can also be seen in primates

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Display Rules

• social norms that distinguish how one should express their emotions.
• Culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on in their lives by interactions and socializations with other people.
• Collectivistic cultures tend to have more display rules (do not show disgust / do not smile showing your teeth etc.)

Micro Expressions

Micro expressions are facial expressions that occur within a fraction of a second. This involuntary emotional leakage exposes a person's true emotions.

Studies to include

• James Lange-
• Those with high-spinal cord injuries experience less intense emotions vs. those with low-spinal cord injuries
• Facial Feedback - your expressed emotion can slightly change your mood
• Two Factor Theory
• College students given epinephrine and put in a waiting room with a person acting irritated felt irritated and those put with a person acting happy felt happy.
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7.4 Stress and Coping

Stress vs. Stressors

Conflicts

Approach-Approach Conflict

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

General Adaptation Syndrome

Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory

Awfulization and Globalization��H1. Explain theories of stress and how unhelpful cognitions can increase stress�H2. What effects can stress have on psychological and physical well-being.

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What are your SOURCES of stress?

We abuse this word!

What is stress?

• The process of appraising and responding to a real or imagined threat.
• Stress is our reaction to something
• It is not something that is given to us.
• Our reaction can trigger the ANS “fight-or-flight” response, causing hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol to surge through the body.

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What we call ‘stress’ is really a process

Step 1 - Stressor

Step 2 - Appraisal

Step 3 - We experience stress

Step 1: Like emotions we start with a stimulus (Stressor)

• Events/circumstances that are potentially threatening.
• Just because you experience a stressor doesn’t mean you will feel ‘stressed’
• How stressed you feel depends on your appraisal of the situation. More on that in a second.

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Step 1: Types of Stressors

• Life changes
• Everyday hassles
• Pressure
• Occurs when we feel forced to speed up or shift focus of our behavior
• Discrimination

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• Frustration
• Occurs when a person is prevented from reaching a goal
• Delays
• Lack of Resources

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Step 1: Stressors- Conflicts

Simultaneous existence of incompatible demands, opportunities, goals, or needs

• Approach/approach conflict occurs when there is a conflict between two appealing possibilities
• Regret
• Avoidance/avoidance conflict occurs when there is a choice between two undesirable possibilities
• Escape
• Approach/avoidance conflict is the result of being simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same goal
• Paralysis

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Step 2 Appraisal

• When we look at an event and see if it is good or bad and if we have the resources necessary to overcome it.

Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory

• Stress arises less from events themselves than from how we appraise (perceive or explain) them.

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• For example, one person, alone in a house, ignores its creaking sounds and experiences no stress; someone else suspects an intruder and becomes alarmed.

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• One person regards a new job as a welcome challenge; someone else appraises it as risking failure.

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Appraisal

The events of our lives flow through a psychological filter.

How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.

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Types of Stress – Acute Stress

• Stress resulting from specific events or situations that involve novelty, unpredictability, or a threat to you physically.
• Fires the SNS
• Helps you deal with danger.
• Examples – almost getting into a car accident, giving a public speech, playing a sport running from a Walker.

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Types of Stress – Chronic Stress

• Response to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period over which an individual perceives he or she has no control. It involves an endocrine system response in which occurs a release of corticosteroids.
• This has long term negative effects on your health.

Negative Explanatory Style

• Awfulization - this is a negative way of explaining stressors assuming they will spiral out of control in the future to some horrible long-term future consequence. The stress than becomes not about the stressor but rather about the possible future event.
• Example - I failed a test now I’m going to be homeless and live in a van down by the river.
• Globalization - this is a negative way of explaining stressors where you take one bad thing and apply it to multiple situations. The stress becomes not about the stressor but about the totality of your problems.
• Example - I failed a test now I am dumb and everyong knows I’m dumb.

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Ok ok, so it has to do with appraisal but my appraisal is trash. What can I do to make it better.

Stress Hardy

• Commitment
• Having a sense of purpose for what you are doing
• Intrinsic motivation
• Personal values
• Goals
• Healthy Control
• Internal Locus of Control vs. External Locus of Control
• A healthy perspective on control helps you focus on events you can influence and stop worrying about things you can’t.
• Change as Challenge
• View change as an opportunity to learn and grow.
• Growth mindset vs. fixed mindset

How does our body react to stress?

• When alerted by any of a number of brain pathways, the sympathetic nervous system arouses us, preparing the body for the adaptive response Walter Cannon called fight-or-flight.
• It increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls feelings of pain, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores

General Adaptation Syndrome

• Selye proposed that the body’s adaptive response to stress is so general that, like a single burglar alarm, it sounds, no matter what intrudes. He named this response the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).
• Hans Selye saw the general adaptation syndrome as a three-phase process of alarm, resistance and exhaustion.

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What is alarm?

In Phase 1, an alarm reaction, occurs as the sympathetic nervous system is suddenly

activated.

The heart rate zooms and blood is diverted to the skeletal muscles.

Feelings of faintness of shock may occur.

Resources are mobilized, and fight/flight or freeze is activated.

What is resistance?

During Phase 2, resistance, temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain

high. The adrenal glands pump hormones into the bloodstream. All resources are summoned to meet the challenge.

As time passes, with no relief from stress, the body’s reserves begin to dwindle.

What is exhaustion?

Phase 3, exhaustion

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With exhaustion, the body becomes more vulnerable to

illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.

How does the stress response work?

The immune system is a complex surveillance system. When it functions properly, it maintains health by isolating and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other invaders.

How does stress increase�vulnerability to disease?

Surgical wounds heal more slowly in stressed people.

Stressed people are more vulnerable to colds.

Stress can hasten the course of disease.

What does the research show?

When researchers dropped a cold virus into people’s noses,

47 percent of those living stress-filled lives developed colds.

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(Cohen et al., 1991)

Does stress cause cancer?

Stress does not create cancer cells.

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But in a healthy, functioning immune system, lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells search out and destroy cancer cells and cancer-damaged

cells.

If stress weakens the immune system, might this weaken a person’s ability to fight off cancer?

Why are some of us more prone to �coronary heart disease than others?

About 610,000 Americans die annually from

heart disease.

(CDC, 2016a)

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High blood pressure and a family history of the disease increase the risk.

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So do smoking, obesity, an unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and a high cholesterol level.

How does stress impact �coronary heart disease?

Stress and personality play a big role in

heart disease.

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The more psychological trauma people experience, the more their bodies generate inflammation, which is associated with heart and other health problems, including depression .

(Haapakoski et al., 2015; O’Donovan et al., 2012)

What studies have been conducted?

In a classic study, Meyer Friedman, Ray Rosenman, and their colleagues tested the idea that

stress increases vulnerability to heart disease by measuring the blood cholesterol level and clotting

speed of 40 U.S. male tax accountants at different times of year.

(Friedman & Ulmer, 1984)

What were the results?

From January through March, the test results were completely normal.

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But as the accountants began scrambling to finish their clients’ tax returns before the April 15 filing deadline, their cholesterol and clotting measures rose to dangerous levels.

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In May and June, with the deadline past, the measures returned to normal.

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For these men, stress predicted heart attack risk.

What follow up research was conducted by Freidman and Rosenman?

Friedman and Rosenman launched a longitudinal study of more than 3000 healthy men, aged 35 to 59.

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The researchers interviewed each man for 15 minutes, noting his work and eating habits, manner of talking, and other behavior patterns.

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After the interviews, the subjects were classified as having either Type A or Type B personalities.

What characterizes a Type A personality?

The subjects in Friedman and Rosenman’s study who seemed the most

reactive, competitive, hard-driving, impatient, time-conscious, super-motivated, verbally aggressive, and easily angered they called Type A.

What characterizes a Type B personality?

The roughly equal number of men in Friedman and Rosenman’s study who were

more easygoing and relaxed they called

Type B.

What were the findings of the longitudinal study?

Nine years later, 257 men had suffered heart attacks, and 69 percent of them were Type A.

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Moreover, not one of the “pure” Type B’s—the most mellow and laid-back of their group—had suffered a heart attack.

Why are Type A personalities more prone to coronary heart disease?

Further research demonstrates that

Type A’s toxic core is negative emotions—especially the anger associated with an aggressively reactive temperament.

Does stress cause illness?

Stress may not directly cause illness, but it does make us more vulnerable, by influencing our behaviors and our physiology.

7.5 Introduction to Personality

The set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of a person and consistent over time and in different situations

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Psychodynamic, Humanistic and Social Cognitive Theories will explain WHY

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Trait theories will try to describe and measure it.

7.6a Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Unconscious

Ego

Id

Super Ego

Defense Mechanisms

Psychosexual Development

Fixated

Oral Stage

Anal Stage

Phallic Stage

Oedipus Complex-Castration Anxty

Electra Complex-Penis Envy

Genital Stage

Latency Stage

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Psychodynamic

Theories

Behavior is the product of psychological

forces within the individual, often

outside of conscious awareness

Central Tenets

• Much of mental life is unconscious. People may behave in ways they themselves don’t understand.
• Mental processes act in parallel, leading to conflicting thoughts and feelings.
• Personality patterns begin in childhood. Childhood experiences strongly affect personality development.
• The development of personality involves learning to regulate this internal conflicts

Sigmund Freud

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Neo-Freudians

Sigmund Freud

Backdrop of Freud’s Intellectual World

• Darwin – Man is not special and can be studied like any other part of the natural order

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• Helmholtz – Law of the Conservation

of Energy

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• Brucke – all living organisms are ‘energy systems’

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Freud combines all of this:

• The human PERSONALITY is an energy system
• It is the job of psychology to investigate the change, transmission and conversion of this ‘psychic energy’ within the personality which shape and determine it.

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These Drives are the ‘Energy’

• Eros (Life Instinct)
• Covers all the self-preserving and erotic instincts
• Libido is the most important of all – seen as sexual energy

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• Thanatos (Death Instinct)
• Covers all the instincts toward aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty

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Levels of the Mind

Levels of the Mind

• The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind.
• The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness.
• The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

Structure of the Mind

• Tripartite Theoretical Model
• Id
• Super-ego
• Ego

Unconscious

Common Motif in Pop Culture

Id

• Our baby-like self
• “pleasure principle” - Oriented toward immediate unconditional gratification of desires and avoidance of pain
• Libido
• Irrational

Id has no contact with outside world

Pleasure through

• Reflex action
• Wish fulfillment - (fantasy) a mental image that satisfies the instinct

Wish fulfillment

Wishfulfillment

Superego�

• Moral center - “should”, “should not”
• We internalize the moral code of our society
• Guilt
• Irrational striving for moral perfection
• Ego Ideal – perfect standards of what one would like to be

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Learned, not present at birth

Ego

• Deals with reality - “reality principle”
• Has to negotiate demands of the id with the reality of living in society and with the demands of the super ego.
• rational

Id has no contact with outside world

What happens when the Id and Super-ego can’t reconcile

• The psychic energy has to go somewhere!
• Id won’t let it go
• Super-ego won’t let it happen
• To protect itself the organism employs defense mechanisms.

Defense mechanisms

• Denial: refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening EVENT.

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• Repression: refusal to to acknowledge painful or threatening EMOTIONS

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• Intellectualization: detaching from those emotions by instead focusing on problem solving and not emotions

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Defense mechanisms

• Displacement: move inappropriate feelings about one person (usually anger) to vent at a safe source.

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• Projection: you move the criticism of yourself to another person

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• Reaction Formation: expressing the opposite of the emotion you are feeling.

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• Regression: revert to childlike behavior

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• Identification: taking on someone else’s characteristics that your superego identifies with

Sublimation

Thin line Between the conscious and unconscious

• Sometimes our unconscious thoughts, etc slip into the conscious.
• How?
• “Freudian slips”
• Dreams
• Humor

So how does this play out

• Humans are driven by the desire for bodily sexual pleasure (libido)– it gets released from different centers at different times.
• But the parents act as the social coercion to balance these desires. – ‘Super-ego givers’
• Development is the resolution of a series of conflicts

Psychosexual stages

Freud said the centers of our libido changes during development. Each stage has a crisis we need to solve. If we don’t personality problems or illness results.

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Fixations are problems that arise due to the crisis not being resolved correctly.

“Psychosexual” Stages of development

• Oral: 0–18months
• Sucking (Weaning)
• Fixation – Gullible or Cynical
• Anal: 18months–3
• Defecation (Potty training)
• Fixation – Self Destructive vs. Anal Retentive
• Phallic: 3-5/6
• Genitals (Oedipus Complex / Castration Anxiety)
• Fixation Egotism (playa or ho) or low self-esteem

The Official Portrait of the Danish Royal Family by Newcastle painter James Brennan.�Photo: Glen Mccurtayne

So how does this play out

• Latency 5/6 – 12/13
• all libidinal activity is suppressed.
• Genital Stage – To puberty and beyond!
• genitals and orgasm.
• Focused on reproduction

Oedipus Complex

• Phase One
• Boy has a libidinal bond with the mother (breast feeding and mother as primary caregiver)
• Parallel to this, the boy begins to identify with his father, the figure parallel to him in terms of biological sex. (Identification with the father's role as "lover" of mother.)
• In this phase, these 2 relationship exist side-by-side and in relative harmony.

Oedipus Complex

• Boy’s feelings Intensify
• Sees the father as an obstacle and a rival who he desires to get rid of or to kill.
• Worries the father will castrate him.
• Boy is never 100% hostile. He keeps the identification so he is torn – ambivalence
• Boy hopefully turns his psychic energy into full-on identification with the father. “Can’t beat’em, join’em.”
• Boy is masculinized, eventually seeks his own sexual partner

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Castration Anxiety

• This fear or threat becomes real upon the observation of the female genitalia, which appear to be "castrated”
• Sources of the castration complex:
• Punishment for affectionate feelings for Mother
• Punishment for masturbation
• Punishment for bed-wetting

The "negative" outcome

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• He identifies with the Mother so much that the father becomes the focus of his libidinal interests
• The boy exhibits "girl-like" behavior
• He assumes an affectionate, feminine attitude toward the father (instead of feeling ambivalence)
• Develops jealousy or even hostility toward the mother.
• According to Freud, this can lead to . . . .

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Freud’s Case Study: Little Hans

• Would not go outside for fear of being bitten by a horse
• Hans has said he wanted to sleep with his mother, “coax with” or caress her, be married to her, and have children “just like daddy.”
• His parents warned that if he continued to play with his “widdler” (penis), it would be cut off. He noticed that his sister had no “widdler.”
• Hans wanted his mother all to himself, was jealous of his father, and feared his mother would prefer his father’s bigger widdler.
• Hans was most afraid of horses with black muzzles,
• The Phobia started after Hans had “accidentally” knocked a statue of a horse from its stand.

The Electra Complex

• But what about girls?
• During the phallic stage the daughter becomes attached to her father and more hostile towards her mother.
• Believes that mom is responsible for her not having a penis.
• This is due mostly to the idea that the girl is "envious" of her father's penis thus the term "penis-envy".
• This leads to resentment towards her mother, who the girl believes caused her castration.

Implications

• Girls seek compensation for the "lost" penis;
• They find this in the baby upon whom they can heap affection.
• The sense of "motherhood" results from the castration complex, the sense of "loss" or "inadequacy" based on an "inferior" physical endowment in the genital region.

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7.6b Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Carl Jung

Collective Unconscious

Archetypes

Persona

Alfred Adler

Compensation

Inferiority Complex

Karen Horney

Anxiety

Neurotic Trends

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Freud and the Neo Freudians

Freud

Id/Ego/Superego

Libido

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Jung

Collective Unconscious

Archetypes

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Adler

Inferiority

Compensations

Complexes

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Horney

Anxiety

Neurotic Trends

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Carl Jung

Collective Unconscious - the collective conscious refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically inherited and not shaped by personal experience.

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It is responsible for a number of deep-seated beliefs and instincts, such as spirituality, sexual behavior, and life and death instincts.

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Jung’s Archetypes

Jung believed that the collective unconscious is expressed through universal archetypes. Archetypes are signs, symbols, or patterns of thinking and/or behaving that are inherited from our ancestors.

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Common Archetypes

Anima - the inner feminine side of men.

Animus- describe the masculine side of women

Persona: The mask we use to conceal our inner selves to the outside world

Shadow: The psyche's immoral and dark aspects

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Jungian Archetypes

• Hero: Starting with a humble birth, then overcoming evil and death
• Trickster: The child seeking self-gratification, sometimes being cruel and unfeeling in the process
• Wise old man: The self as a figure of wisdom or knowledge

Alfred Adler

Inferiority - According to Adler, all humans have a feeling of inferiority and inadequacy immediately as they begin to experience the world. They are surrounded by powerful adults and naturally feel all that they are not.

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Compensation - is the striving for a personally defined superiority. It is the attempt to move upward from a place of inferiority to a place of superiority.

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In this sense Adler is the father of Humanism.

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Inferiority Complex

Arises when you can’t compensate.

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If your feelings of inferiority become too strong and you lack courage to strive for health growth, it can result in the “Inferiority Complex”.

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chronic feelings of inadequacy and insecurity

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Superiority Complex

• If you have an inferiority complex but you cannot accept your incapable self, it can result in a “Superiority Complex”.
• You then overcompensate in other areas often looking for an easy way out of inferiority.
• This is how they enter the never ending circle of feeling inferior ➡️ trying to feel better with fake superiority ➡️ ending up feeling worse.

Adler’s Style of Life

Adler felt he could distinguish four primary types of style. A fixed ideal that that child determines by 4-5. Three of them he said to be "mistaken styles".

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These include:

• the ruling type: aggressive, dominating people who don't have much social interest or cultural perception;
• the getting type: dependent people who take rather than give;
• the avoiding type: people who try to escape life's problems and take little part in socially constructive activity.
• the socially useful type: people with a great deal of social interest and activity.

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Karen Horney

• She believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships.

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• Horney's theory proposed that strategies used to cope with anxiety can be overused, causing them to take on the appearance of needs or neurotic trends.

Horney’s Coping Styles

7.8 Humanistic Theories of Personality

Carl Rogers

Ideal Self vs Perceived Self

Unconditional Positive Regard

Maslow’s Self Actualization

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Psychodynamic vs. Humanistic Psychology

Psychodynamic psychology is concerned with the unconscious. Aside from Adler, Freud and the neo-Freudians they see it as something that will continuously cause conflict and pull you down.

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Humanistic psychology believes in the HUMAN potential and believes that you can improve and get better. It is much more optimistic.

Carl Rogers

• Founder of humanistic psychology
• Developed client-centered therapy
• You want to link him
• Ideal Self vs Perceived Self
• Unconditional Positive regard
• Fully functioning person

Ideal vs. Perceived Self

Ideal Self - How one wants to be vs. Perceived Self - someone’s self concept right now. The closer the two the more congruence.

Unconditional Positive Regard

This is how you move the circles together to create congruence

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Give the person acceptance for who they are now and for who they want to be. Do not force an identity or narrative onto them.

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Do this and find congruence and become Fully functioning.

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Fully Functioning Person

• This person has received unconditional positive regard from others and does not place conditions on their own worth.
• They are also capable of expressing feelings and are fully open to life's many experiences.
• They are able to live fully in the moment. They experience a sense of inner freedom and embrace creativity, excitement, and challenge.

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Self Actualization

Self-actualization is the full realization of one’s creative, intellectual, and social potential through internal drive (verses for external rewards like money, status, or power).

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Since self-actualization is based on using one’s abilities to reach their potential, it is a very individual process and will probably vary significantly from person to person.

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7.7 Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories of Personality

Cognitive Theory

Expectancies

Performance Standards

Self-Efficacy

External Locus of Control

Internal Locus of Control

Collectivist vs Individualistic cultures

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Cognitive-Social Learning Theories in Personality

• Albert Bandura
• We each have a set of personal standards that grew out of our own life history and thus shape our behavior.
• In this light, behavior is seen as the interaction of personal factors, learning/behavior, and the current social environment.

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Outline

Expectancies = schema

• What a person expects from a situation or from their own behavior
• people evaluate situations based on these
• Expectancies are formed from personal preferences/past experiences
• The actual feedback will in turn mold future expectancies

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Expectancies form Performance Standards.

• This leads people to conduct themselves according to performance standards
• Individually determined standards of excellence by which we judge our behavior
• If you meet your own performance standards then you get . . .

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Self-efficacy

• The expectancy that your efforts will be successful
• Learned helplessness is the opposite of self-efficacy

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Cognitive-Social Learning Theories in Personality

Attitudes

Expectations

Performance Standards

Self-Efficacy

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Social Norms

Influences of the group

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Person�Introvert

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Expectancy of “chaos”

Performance Standard - “good girl”

Self Efficacy��

Environment�Peers neg reinforce behavior by removing chaos

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Teacher follows social norms and reinforces behavior��

Behavior�Speaks quietly

Doesn’t join at recess

Teacher can’t hear response

Withdraws from recess

Remains respectfully quiet

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Locus of control�

• a common expectancy (Julian Rotter) by which people view a situation
• Internal locus of control – they can control their own fate. Through hard work, skill, and training, they can find reinforcements and avoid punishments
• External locus of control – do not believe they control their own fate. Instead they are convinced that chance, luck, and the behavior of others determines their destiny and that they are helpless to change the course of their lives. – learned helplessness

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7.9 Trait Theories of Personality

16 Personality Factors

Factor Analysis

Big 5 Traits

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Traits

• Long term personal characteristics
• Stable across situations
• Stabilize around adulthood �

Factor Analysis - Basic Idea

Big Five Correlates

• Openness typically shows positive correlations with IQ test performance
• Conscientiousness has a moderate to large positive correlation with performance in the workplace
• Extraversion was positively correlated with average national levels of happiness and life satisfaction
• Agreeableness is negatively correlated with income and professional status.
• Neuroticism had significant, positive correlations with maladaptive CERS strategies (self-blame, acceptance, rumination, catastrophizing, and other-blame) and depressive symptoms (ps < 0.001).

7.10 Measuring Personality

Projective Tests

Rorschach Inkblot

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Objective Tests

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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Projective Test: Rorschach Inkblot

Examples of Rorschach Inkblot

Projective Test: Thematic Apperception Test

Involves showing people a series of picture cards depicting a variety of ambiguous characters (that may include men, women, and/or children), scenes, and situations.

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They are then asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented, including:

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what has led up to the event shown

what is happening in the scene

the thoughts and feelings of characters

the outcome of the story

How is it used?

• To learn more about a person. In this way, the test acts as something of an icebreaker while providing useful information about potential emotional conflicts the client may have.
• To help people express their feelings. The TAT is often used as a therapeutic tool to allow clients to express feelings in a non-direct way. A client may not yet be able to express a certain feeling directly, but they might be able to identify the emotion when viewed from an outside perspective.
• To explore themes related to the person's life experiences. Clients dealing with problems such as job loss, divorce, or health issues might interpret the ambiguous scenes and relating to their unique circumstances, allowing deeper exploration over the course of therapy.

Examples of TAT

MMPI

• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical issues.
• The MMPI-2 is designed with 10 clinical scales which assess 10 major categories of abnormal human behavior, and four validity scales, which assess the person’s general test-taking attitude and whether they answered the items on the test in a truthful and accurate manner.

How was it made?

For an item to appear on a specific scale, it had to be answered significantly differently by a group of patients who were independently determined to have the problem of the scale’s focus. For instance, for the hypochondriasis scale, the researchers looked at a group of 50 hypochondriacs. They then had to compare this group with a group of people who had no psychiatric problems — a normal population that served as a reference group. The original MMPI was normed on 724 individuals who were friends or relatives of patients in the University Hospitals in Minneapolis, and who were not currently receiving treatment from a doctor.