By

Dr. M.H. Askari

Assistant Professor

T.H.L.H. Mahavidyalay, Birbhum, W.B. India

METHODS of DATA COLLECTION

Online Certificate Course on “Research Methodology and GIS”

Organized by

Department of Geography, Malda College

(Date: 18/03/2023, 7 p.m. onwards)

Data?

Data is a raw and unorganized fact that is required to be processed to make it meaningful. Data may be broadly classified as either quantitative or qualitative.

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Information?

Information is a set of data that is processed in a meaningful way according to the requirement.

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How to collect data

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and the research design/plan chalked out.

Collection of primary data

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• By doing experiments in an experimental research

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• Through census surveys or sample surveys in surveys and descriptive research. There are several methods of primary data collection in surveys and descriptive research. Such as- Observation method, Questionnaire method, Schedule method, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) method, Using mechanical devices, and others.

Observation method

In this method the information is obtained through direct observation by the investigator without asking the subject.

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Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it

• Serves a formulated research purpose
• Systematically planned and recorded
• Subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

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Types of observation method

• Direct observation
• Indirect observation
• Structured observation
• Unstructured observation
• Controlled observation
• Uncontrolled observation
• Participatory observation
• Non-participatory observation

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Before selecting the method of observation, the researcher should keep in mind:

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What to be observed?

How the observations should be recorded?

Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?

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Advantages

• Not very difficult method
• Reliable and valid
• Subjective bias free
• No language barrier
• Relates to current incidents
• Independent of respondents’ willingness
• Suitable for those respondents, who are not capable of giving verbal reports

Limitations

• Expensive method
• Time consuming
• Very limited information
• Unforeseen factors
• Applicable for small area
• Different approaches
• Trained observers needed
• Changing behaviour of the subject
• Risk in case of sensitive matter

• Concept
• Qualities of good questionnaire
• Steps
• Types of questions
• Advantages
• Disadvantages

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD OF

DATA COLLECTION

What is questionnaire method of primary

data collection

The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist, explorer and statistician. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post and mail) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions on their own and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. Questionnaires are used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from respondents.

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As defined ‘A questionnaire is simply a list of mimeographed or printed questions that is completed by or for a respondent to give his opinion’ (World Health Organizations. Research methodology, 2nd ed).

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As per Ram Ahuja “Questionnaire is described as a document that contains a set questions, the answers to which are to be provided personally by the respondents”.

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Wilkinson and Bhandar described “A questionnaire consists of number of questions printed or typed in definite order or form”.

“It is not every question that deserves an answer.” Publius Syrus

Qualities of good questionnaire

Good quality of printing

Covering letter

Attractive appearance, layout

Language consideration

• Concise
• Clear & straightforward
• Uniformity of understanding
• Understandable

Avoid technical words

Proper question sequence

Avoid dual meaning questions

Mention specific time period if needed

Non-sensitive and easy questions at the beginning

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Sensitive and difficult questions at the end

Don’t hurt ego of the respondent

Keep to the minimum

Relevant questions

Bias-free

Decide information required

Define the target respondents

Choose the method of reaching

Decide on question content

Develop the question wording

Put questions into a meaningful order and format

Check the length of the questionnaire

Pre-test the questionnaire

Develop the final survey form

Steps of

questionnaire

Dichotomous Questions

Multiple-choice question

Likert Question

Rating Scale Questions

Matrix Questions

Pictorial questions

Structured/ Close ended questions

A close-ended question is one that limits possible responses to options. It comes with pre-selected answer options and requires the respondent to choose one of the options that closely resonates with her thoughts, opinion, or knowledge.  Close-ended questions are best used in quantitative research because they allow you to collect statistical information from respondents, which help to gather a large amount of data that can be analysed quickly. It is cost effective and easy to code, tabulate and analyse. Although Ideas of the researchers are imposed on the respondents, sometimes respondents get frustrated by not getting the desirous options of their choice. Close ended questions consist different type of questions like:

Dichotomous Questions

A dichotomous question that has only 2 opposite answer-options. It requires the research participants to choose one of the 2 available options as a response to the question. The most common type of dichotomous question is the yes/no question. A dichotomous question allows respondents to provide short, concise, and direct answers in the research questionnaire. It helps to eliminate unnecessary complexities in data collection. Other common formats of dichotomous questions are true/false questions and agree/disagree questions. 

Example:

Question: Is there any hips of garbage present near your house ?

Answer: Yes/ No

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Question: Do you think midday meal scheme can prevent the rate of drop out students?

Answer: Yes/ No

Multi-choice questions

Multi-choice question (MCQ) gives more than 2 answer-options to choose the most relevant option from the available choices by the respondents. Benjamin D. Wood developed the multiple choice test for the first time. MCQs consist of a stem and several alternative answer. A question to be answer or a problem to be solved is called as stem. The options are the possible answers that the respondent can choose from, the correct answer is called as key and the incorrect answers called as distractors.

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Example:

Question: What is the type of sanitation at your home?

Options: Personal latrine / Public latrine / Open space

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Question: Where is your place of cooking?

Options: Inside the kitchen room / At Barindah / Open space

Rating Scale Questions

Questions that ask respondents to provide a rating on a specific matter on a scale of 1 to 10 or on a scale of "poor" to "good" are called rating scale questions.

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Example:

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Question: How would you rate the services provided by the Municipality corporation?

Answer: 1- Very Good

2- Good

3- Fair

4- Bad

5- Very Bad

Likert Questions

This is a type of psychometric question that measures the respondent's perception or opinion on a topic or subject matter. It uses points to rank different opinions, thoughts, and experiences in line with the topic at hand and the overall research context. A Likert scale question is popular as a 4-point scale, 5-point scale, or 7-point scale. Over time, it has come to be used interchangeable with almost any type of rating scale. Likert scales measured the degree of agreement with a question or statement.

Example:

Question: Do you think ‘Duare Sarkar camp’ is very helpful?

Answer: Strongly agreed [ ]

Agreed [ ]

Neither Agree or Disagree [ ]

Disagree [ ]

Strongly disagree [ ]

Matrix Questions

A matrix question is a group of multiple-choice questions displayed in a grid of rows and columns. The rows present the questions to the respondents, and the columns offer a set of predefined answer choices that apply to each question in the row. Very often the answer choices are offered in a scale. Matrix questions are best used as a way to ask several questions about a similar idea. It is actually a series of questions presented as a single table, it appears as a single question on the survey. This has the benefit of saving space (both on paper and in a digital survey) as well as reducing drop-offs from respondents who do not feel like answering many nearly-identical questions back-to-back. 

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Example : How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with each of the following?

Pictorial Questions

This question type is easy to use and encourages respondents to answer. It works similarly to a multiple-choice question. Respondents are asked a question, and the answer choices are images. This helps respondents choose an answer quickly without over-thinking their answers, giving you more accurate data. These are mostly used as study material for children and for those who can’t talk or listen.

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Unstructured/ Open-ended Questions

An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not restrict respondents to a set of predetermined answers. Rather, respondents are allowed to fully express their thoughts, opinions, and experiences . This type of question has few limitation like it may take more time and space to answer, responses can be vague, irrelevant or not to the point, sometime coding of the qualitative responses is not possible.

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Example:

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Question: What should be possible measures to improve the quality of health care facility ?

Answer:

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Question: What is your perception towards online class?

Answer:

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Semi-structured/Mixed Questions

Not all questions are easily pre-coded with almost possible alternatives to answers. Given answer alternatives of some questions in the standard questionnaires are left as ‘others’ (please specify). A common and pragmatic practice is that most of the questions are structured, however, it is comfortable to have some unstructured questions whose answers are not feasible to enumerate completely. Such a type of questionnaire is called a Semi/Mixed/Quasi-structured Questionnaire.

Example

Question: Do you think that your children are getting proper education facilities in your area?

Answer: Yes/No

If no, then what are the problems of the existing education system………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

Advantages

• Easier and quicker to collect data
• Direct responses can be obtained
• Quantitative as well as qualitative responses can be procured
• Empirical data can be collected
• Cost effective
• Response from a large population covering a wide geographical area
• High rate of response from an educated population
• Respondents get a chance to prepare and revise their answers
• Researchers also get a chance of pretest
• Responses are easy to analyse and tabulate
• Respondents can express their views on any given topic freely
• Questionnaire has a fixed format

Limitations

• People often do not return the questionnaire on time
• Reliability of data can be questioned
• Time-consuming activity
• Incomplete answers affect the analysis process
• Researcher cannot observe the respondents reaction
• Wrong interpretation of question by respondents can affect the analysis
• Technical jargon/ professional terminology increases the number of unanswered questions
• It may not have included certain important questions if the researcher is biased
• Difficult to verify the accuracy of the responses

SCHEDULE METHOD

• Good quality of printing
• Covering letter
• Language consideration
• Avoid technical words
• Proper question sequence
• Avoid dual meaning questions
• Mention specific time period if needed
• Non-sensitive and easy questions at the beginning
• Sensitive and difficult questions at the end
• Don’t hurt ego of the respondent
• Keep to the minimum
• Relevant questions
• Bias-free

“It is not every question that deserves an answer.” Publius Syrus

Dichotomous Questions

Multiple-choice question

Likert Question

Rating Scale Questions

Matrix Questions

Pictorial questions

Advantages

• Researchers or surveyors explain the aims and objectives of the investigation
• The investigator can explain the questions if the respondent faces any difficulty
• The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked by supplementary questions wherever necessary
• Possible to capture non-verbal expression
• Free from technological distractions
• Useful for extensive enquiries
• Respondents are less likely to leave a question unanswered
• Time saving process as the responses can be obtained directly and instantly
• Respondents can express their views on any given topic freely
• Schedule has a fixed format

Limitations

• Researchers or surveyors should be trained
• Intelligence is required for cross-examination in order to find out the truth
• Expensive method
• The size of the sample is limited
• Limited geographical area can be covered
• Recording may be biased, incomplete or selective
• Researcher may face difficulties if unable to develop rapport
• Sometime difficult to get permission from the competent authorities
• Accommodation and management related difficulties

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

(FGD)

• Introduction and key features
• Skills required to conduct FGD
• Dos and don’ts for the moderator
• Types of focus group
• Steps for conducting FGD
• Focus group question examples
• Advantages and limitations of FGD

In 1991, marketing expert and psychologist Ernest Dichter coined the term “Focus Group”. A focus group discussion involves gathering people from similar background or experiences together to discuss a specific topic of interest.

Key features:

• It is a form of qualitative research where questions are asked about their perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, opinion or ideas.
• Particularly suited for obtaining several perspectives about the same topic.
• Participants are free to talk with other group members; unlike other research methods it encourages discussions with other participants.
• Involves group interviewing, in which a small group of usually 8 to 12 people are present.
• The strength of FGD relies on allowing the participants to agree or disagree with each other.
• Participants and moderator are the main pillars of a FGD.

Skills Required to Conduct FGDs

• The researcher needs to be flexible and free of biasness.
• A good understanding of the subject, problem, or topic to be investigated.
• Proficiency in the language in which discussions will be conducted.
• Moderator must have considerable group process skills.
• Training or experience in conducting FGD is required for the moderator.

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Dos and Don’ts for the moderator

Dos

• Be the naive listener or the naïve observer.
• Wear clothes that fit in with what they wear.
• Act like the participants and you are equal.
• Look innocent, as if you didn’t know things, even if you do.
• The first question should be general to get people warmed up.
• Ask the person to tell more about any new ideas.
• Check an opinion with others in the group.
• At the beginning, explain and ensure about the confidentiality of the FGD.
• Keep praising and thanking people for their contribution.
• Flexibility is required to change the order of the questions if needed.

Don’ts

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• Do not ask leading questions.
• Do not ask ‘yes or no’ questions, as this does not open up discussion.
• Do not ask double-barreled questions.
• Do not tell people they are wrong. Do not correct them.
• Do not express any point of view.
• Try not to shut people down.
• Do not pressurize or embarrass them to speak.
• Never gossip about the focus groups after the study.

Selecting the right participants

Choose competent moderator

Write clear discussion guidelines

Conduct and record the session and generate a report

Use the data to make a plan of action

Steps for

conducting

FGD

Focus group question examples

Advantages

• Inexpensive and fast method of acquiring valuable data and information.
• More comfortable in voicing views.
• Dynamic discussion between participants stimulates their thoughts.
• New ideas may be generated.
• All individuals along with the researcher have a chance to ask questions.
• The discussions in the focus groups can be kept under control.
• Changes can be bought whenever required.
• Possible to capture non-verbal expression.

Limitations

• Inexperienced moderator may face problems in controlling some participants who try to dominate the group.
• Respondents may be reluctant to share some sensitive ideas and concerns publicly.
• Small sample size and heterogeneity of individuals.
• Artificial set-up that influences the respondents to express and act unnaturally.
• Some topic like living with HIV/AIDS, domestic violence and others are unsuitable.
• Due to the presence of some group members, the participants may feel too intimidate to speak.
• Difficulty in assembling groups.
• Difficulty in information management and review.

Secondary data collection method

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case, he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.

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Sources: 1. Published sources 2. Unpublished sources

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• Published sources:

1. International publications (N.N.O., W.H.O, I.M.F. and others)

2. Publications by the Central and State governments (Census of India, Reserve Bank of India, Agricultural Statistics of India)

3. Semi-official publications (Municipal corporation, Panchayat)

4. Publications of Research Institutions (Indian Statistical Institution, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute)

5. Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government (Pay Commission Report, Land Reforms Committee Reports)

6. Journals and Newspapers (Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of Trade)

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• Unpublished sources: (Records maintained by various governments & private offices, The research carried out by individual scholars in the universities or research institutes

Precautions in the use of secondary data:

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“Secondary data should not be accepted at their face value without knowing their meaning and limitations” ------- Prof. Bowley

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• The suitability of data

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• Adequacy of data

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• Reliability of data

(a) Who collected the data?

(b) What were the sources of data?

(c) Were they collected by using proper methods

(d) At what time were they collected?

(e) Was there any bias in the compiler?

(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

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Selection of appropriate data collection method :

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• Nature, scope, and object of enquiry

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• Availability of funds

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• Time factor

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• Precision required

Thank you