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Theories of Communication (MCM511)

Table of Contents:

Page no.

Lesson 1 Communication.................................................................................................... 1

Lesson 2 Theory, Paradigm and Model (I) ……………………………………….. 4

Lesson 3 Theory, Paradigm and Model (II) ………………………………………. 6

Lesson 4 From Communication To Mass Communication ………………………. 10

Lesson 5 Normative Theories ……………………………………………………. 13

Hutchins Commission On Freedom, Chicago School & Basic Principles

Lesson 6 Of Social Responsibility Theory………………………………………… 16

Lesson 7

Lesson 8 Limitation of the Press Theory ………………………................................ 22

Lesson 9 McQuail’s Four Kinds Of Theories…………...……………………….... 26

Lesson 10 Propaganda Theories ………………………...………………………… 30

Lesson 11 Paradigm Shift & Two Step Flow of Information……………...………… 33

Lesson 12 Middle Range Theories ………………………...……………………….. 38

Lesson 13 Klapper’s Phenoministic Theory………………………………………… 41

Lesson 14 Diffusion of Innovation Theory ………………………………………… 44

Lesson 15 Challenging the Dominant Paradigm ……………………........................... 48

Lesson 16 Social Cognitive Theory ………………………............................................. 52

Lesson 17 Modeling from Mass Media …………………………………………….. 56

Lesson 18 Priming Effect ………………………...………………………................. 59

Lesson 19 Cultivation of Perceptions of Social Reality…………………....................... 62

Lesson 20 Systems Theories of Communication Processes ...……………………….. 65

Lesson 21 Emergence Of Critical & Cultural Theories Of Mass Communication....... 68

Lesson 22 Revision ………………………...………………………............................ 71

Critical Theories & Role Of Mass Communication In A Society -The

Lesson 23 Mediation Of Social Relations………………………...………………… 78

Lesson 24 Role of Mass Media in Social Order & Marxist Theory...……………….. 80

Lesson 25 Key Principles used in Marxism………...……………………….............. 83

Lesson 26 Consumer Society ………………………...................................................... 85

Lesson 27 Communication and Culture ………………………...…………………. 87

Lesson 28 Hegemony ………………………...………………………....................... 90

Lesson 29 Culture Industry ………………………......................................................... 92

Lesson 30 Political Economy Theory (I) …………...………………………............. 94

Lesson 31 Political Economy Theory (II) ………………………...……………....... 96

Lesson 32 Political Economy Theory (III) .……………………….............................. 99

Lesson 33 Agenda Setting Theory ……………………….............................................. 103

Lesson 34 Framing & Spiral of Silence ………………………...…………………… 106

Lesson 35 Spiral of Silence ………………………...……………………………….. 109

Lesson 36 Marshall McLuhan: The Medium Is The Message And Massage…...…….. 113

Lesson 37 Knowledge Gap Theory ………………………...………………………. 116

Lesson 38 Media System Dependency Theory ……………………….......................... 118

Lesson 39 Uses and Gratifications Theory………………………...……………….. 121

Lesson 40 Reception Theory ………………………........................................................ 124

Lesson 41 Framing and Frame Analysis ………………………..................................... 126

Lesson 42 Trend in Mass Communication (I)……………………...………………... 130

19

Civic Journalism, Development Media Theory & Democratic Participant

Theory………………………...………………….......................................

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Lesson 43 Trend in Mass Communication (II) ……………………….......................... 134

Lesson 44 Globalization and Media…………………...………………………........... 137

Lesson 45 Revision ……………………….......................................................................... 140

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LESSON 01

COMMUNICATION

Defining communication

Communication is seen as central to our everyday ideas about what makes life worth living. It is not

surprising that academicians have attempted to unravel the secrets of the communication process. In this

section of the study we will examine the theorizing and theories of this discipline of communication.

To understand communication theory we need to understand the nature of communication.

Nature of communication

People define terms in different ways, and those differences in definition can have a profound impact on

the extent to which we understand each other and the way we move forward with both academic and

everyday pursuits.

Given the variety of ways in which words are used and understood, we are often ill-served to search for

the single, so-called correct definition of a term.

In other words, it is better to evaluate definition in terms of their utility rather than in terms of their

correctness. So we should not assume that there is always a single right way to define a concept. There

is a great deal of variation in the definitions. Some are very abstract and some are extremely specific.

Few definitions are cited below.

Communication is the process by which an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually

verbal) to modify the behavior of other individuals (the audience). (Hovland Janis and Kelly in 1953)

Communication is the process by which we understand others and in turn endeavor to be understood by

them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the total situation (Anderson, 1959)

Communication is all of the procedures by which one mind can affect another (W. Weaver, 1949)

Communication means that information is passed from one place to another. (Miller, 1951)

These definitions are incomplete in the sense that Weaver’s definition is incredibly broad; it includes all

the procedures by which one “mind” could have an effect on another, whereas the other definitions

excludes too many activities that we normally think of as communication. However through this

definitional turmoil many conceptual features have emerged as important points of discussion.

Conceptualizing communication: points of convergence

Communication is a process:

Process-oriented conceptualization of communication suggests that it is continuous and complex and

cannot be arbitrarily isolated. David Berlo in 1960 popularized this idea in these words.

“If we accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic, on-going, ever-

changing, continuous. When we label something as a process we also mean that it does not have a

beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within

a process interact; each affects all others.”

So when we look at communication as a process, we see that even simple interactions are influenced in

complex ways by the past and will also have important implication for the future. In early

conceptualizations of communication this process was seen as a primarily linear one, in which

communication moved from a source to a receiver. As we can see in the Lasswell’s classical model of

communication:

Who?

Says what?

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To whom?

Through what channel?

With what effect?

Lasswell’s linear model of communication is not accepted for it does not incorporate a feedback loop

from receiver to source. Rather most communication researchers now take a transactional approach to

communication.

Transactional approach

Communication is transactional and hence highly complex. The concept of transaction is useful to

contrast it with the related ideas of action and interaction.

If we consider communication to strictly action, a source presenting a message to a receiver or an

audience, we would not consider the reaction of the audience or feedback from it. This is a one way

linear model of communication which is also labeled the hypodermic needle model or magic bullet

model of communication.

It suggests that communication is a simple process of injecting our messages into receivers.

In contrast, if we communicate from an interaction perspective, we move from beyond the hypodermic

needle to consider the importance of feedback from the receiver. This is the interaction model; we look

at not only the message of the source but also the reaction of the receiver.

Burgoon and Ruffner in 1978 said:

“People are simultaneously acting as a source and receiver in many communication situations. A

person is giving feedback, talking, responding, acting and reacting continually through a

communication event. Each person is constantly participating in the communication activity; all of these

things can alter the other elements in the process and create a completely different communication

event. This is what we mean by transaction”.

A view of communication as transactional also emphasizes the importance of context. That is, not only

do participant constantly influence each other, they are also influenced by the context in which they

interact, e.g. comment made in an organization can take on a very different meaning depending on

whether it is heard in a formal performance appraisal meeting or in casual conversation in the cafeteria.

Communication is symbolic:

A third area of convergence in conceptualizations of communication is the belief that communication is

symbolic. To explore this concept, it is useful to talk briefly about the more general concept of sign,

investigated by the field of semiotics.

Semioticians see a sign as consisting of two inextricably linked parts - signifier and the signified.

Consider the work book and the object made of paper and glue that you hold in your hand right now. In

this case, the signifier is the word book and the signified is the signified is the concept of the book and

the referent is the physical object you are holding. This relationship is obviously not a perfect one-to one

correspondence and is often an arbitrary relationship in that there is no natural correspondence, for

instance, between the letters b-o-o-k and the object to which they refer.

Thus, symbols hold an arbitrary, rather than natural, relationship to what is symbolized, and a symbol

has no inherent meaning.

Other semioticians have also tried to understand these notions more or less in the same manner. For

example theorists, Ogden and Richards in 1946 explained this relationship in terms of a semantic

triangle in which the three points of the triangle are the symbol (the word book) the referent (the

physical object) and the reference (what you mean by book when you use the symbol). In this triangle,

the link between the symbol and the referent is arbitrary. That is, you might be quite clear about what

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you mean when you use the term book, but that symbol might have different meanings for different

people.

However, with most symbols, some degree of shared meaning exists between interactants. As symbol

are developed through shared social experience and exist within a system of other symbols. However

gaps in communication occur if the shared meaning is not the same which happens when there are

different cultures or different social experiences.

So when theorists say that communication is symbolic, they mean that it requires signs and symbols that

have relationships to referents that are to some extent arbitrary.

Conceptualizing communication: points of divergence

1. Communication as a social activity.

2. Communication and intention.

Communication as a social activity

The first point of divergence is whether communication necessarily involves two or more people (e.g., is

a social or interpersonal activity) or whether communication can occur within one individual (i.e.

intrapersonal communication-you communicate with yourself.) that is can you talk to yourself. One

group of scholars say that it is cognition or thinking and says that communication is in which two or

more people are involved. The more important point in conceptualizing communication as a social

process is in the function that communication serves as a social vehicle. That is when we see

communication as something that occurs between people the question arises of what communication is

doing in that relationship.

So when we are looking at the language as a social activity we are then looking primarily at the

pragmatic level. The pragmatic level of language study looks at language use. That is, a pragmatic view

looks at the ways in which we do things with words. That is communication, in this social sense, is a

vehicle through which we are trying to do something- we are trying to get others to understand or

appreciate our internal thoughts or emotion, or we might be trying to understand those internal states in

others.

Communication and Intention

One group of scholars say that “you cannot not communicate”. Suggesting that meaning is inherent in

all human behavior, E.g. wearing an old jeans.

So this group makes communication synonymous or nearly synonymous with BEHAVIOR.

Whereas the other group disregard this idea that “you cannot not communicate”, arguing that only

intentional behaviors should count as communication. In their view, communication occurs only when

there is clear intention the part of the source to communicate.

“Communication occurs in those situations in which a source transmits a message to a receiver with

conscious intent to affect the latter’s behavior” (Miller, 1966)

Summary

In this chapter we have explored the terrain surrounding the concept of communication. We did number

of definitions. We did conceptualizations of communication- points of convergence: Communication as

a process; Communication is transactional; Communication is symbolic. Points of divergence:

Communication as a social activity and Communication and intention.

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LESSON 02

THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (I)

Paradigm

In general, paradigm is a whole system of thinking. Paradigm is a set of propositions that explain how

the world is perceived it contains a world view a way of breaking down the complexity of the real

world.

Paradigms are broad theoretical formulations. They set forth sets of postulates-assumptions that one can

choose to regard as descriptions of reality for the purpose of obtaining derived hypothesis. Such

hypotheses can then guide research on specific process and effects.

“A paradigm is a set of beliefs, values techniques which are shared by members of a scientific

community, and which acts as a guide or map dictating the kinds of problems scientist should address

and the types of explanation that are acceptable”. (Kuhn, 1970)

So paradigms includes basic assumptions, the important questions to be answered or puzzles to be

solved , the research techniques to be used and examples of what good scientific research looks like. In

other words we can say paradigms are different ways of looking at world- the way ways to observe

measure and understand social reality.

There are three major paradigms

Positivistic perspective

Interpretive perspective

Critical perspective

Positivistic Perspective

It is the oldest paradigm. Linked with the work of A.Comte and E.Durkeim

It defines reality as everything that can be perceived through the senses; other sources of knowledge are

unreliable. Reality is out there, independent of human consciousness. Reality is objective, rests on order

and is governed by strict, natural and unchangeable laws. It can be realized through experience. ll

members of society define reality in the same way, because they all share the same meanings.

Science is based on strict rules and procedures. Science is deductive, proceeding from general /abstract

to specific/ concrete. Science is based on universal causal laws which are used to explain concrete social

events and relationships.

Interpretive Perspective

Interpretative social science relates to the works of Vico, Dilthey, and Weber.

Interpretive theorists believe that reality is not ‘out there’ but in the minds of the people. Reality is

internally experienced is socially constructed through interaction and interpreted through the actors and

is based on the definition people attach to it. Reality is not objective but subjective. The approach

employed is inductive-proceeding from the specific to the general and from the concrete to the abstract.

It is ideographic- it presents reality symbolically in a descriptive form

Critical Perspective

This was developed out of the work of Karl Marx and the critical, theorists and feminists. Critical

theorists see reality in a different manner. Reality is created not by nature but by the powerful people

who manipulate condition and brainwash others to perceive things the way they want them to, to serve

the needs of the powerful. They claim that reality is not what it appears to be, for it often does not

reflect the conflicts, tensions and contradictions that are eminent in society. The interest of the critical

theorists is to uncover these myths and illusion, to expose real structures and present reality as it is.

They propose that human beings have a great potential for creativity and adjustments. They are however

restricted and oppressed by social factors and conditions and exploited by their fellow men, who

convince them that their fate is correct and acceptable. Belief in such illusions creates a false

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consciousness and prevents people from fully realizing their potential. Critical theorists fight illusions

and the structures. It is not value-free.

What is a theory?

Sir Karl Popper, a philosopher instrumental in shaping 20th century views of knowledge, says :

“Theories are nets cast to catch what we call the world.”

Popper was primarily interested in investigating the way in which we come to understand the natural

and physical world, but his view are also highly appropriate in a consideration of how we come to know

about the human and social world in which we live.

Nature of theory

Understanding the nature of theory in the scholarly world involves a consideration of two issues:

1. To develop a shared understanding of what a theory is. Although there is no one definition of theory,

but we will consider issues regarding the conceptualization of theory.

2. How theory functions as a vehicle toward enhancing our understanding of the social world.

Conceptualizing theory

As discussed earlier theories help us understand or explain phenomena we observe in the social world.

Theory is necessarily an abstraction of the social world. Theory is not the communicative behavior itself

but an abstract (a general idea not based on any particular real physical reality) set of ideas that help us

make sense of behavior. Everyone tries to make sense of their lives by developing and testing these

common sense theories. However people who make sense of communication as part of an academic

career are communication researchers and theorists.

We will explore the nature of theory looking at what we mean by theory in the scholarly world and by

looking at the foundation we bring to the development and use of theory. Theory must go beyond or

‘look behind’ phenomena in the social world.

There are two approaches to theory building:

Deductive approach

Inductive approach

Deductive Approach

From the general to particular; the process by which theory is tested

Deductive approach to theory building tends to give primacy to theory’. That is, abstract theories are

developed early after initial sensitizing observation, and then empirical observations are used to test

those theories. The researcher begins with a general idea or theory and asks a specific statement or

hypothesis, then tests the hypothesis with the collection of data. The movement is from the general

proposition to the specific instances seen in the research.

Inductive Approach

Inductive approach to theory building gives primacy to observation. FROM THE PARTICULAR TO

THE GENERAL; THE PROCESS BY WHICH THEORY IS GENERATED. In this approach,

theoretical abstractions are based on- or grounded in empirical observation. The scholars immerse

themselves in the situations and then come up to any conclusions. The researcher begins with a simple

research question and collects data that describe a particular case, and then develops a theory based

upon findings.

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LESSON 03

THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II)

Theory is more then a cataloging of the social world: it is an attempt to provide an abstract

understanding or explanation of the social world. Theories are a set of logically interrelated

propositions, presented in a systematic way which describe and explain social phenomena. They are

logically constructed statements that summarize and organize knowledge in a particular area and are

open to testing, reformulation modification and revision.

Functions of Theories

Bernard Cohen in 1994 drawing from the work of Larry Lauden in 1982 proposes that the central

function of theory is to solve problems. Lauden notes that:

“The first and essential acid test for any theory is whether it provides acceptable answers to interesting

questions.”

Theories can be used to address a number of type’s problems. According to Lauden it can begin with

three types of problems:

• Empirical problems

• Conceptual problems

• Practical problems

Empirical problems

An empirical problem is “any thing about the world which strikes us as odd or otherwise in need of

explanation”.

Conceptual problems

Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be clarified

Practical problems

The utility in solving practical problems has historically played major role in both assessing and

promoting theory construction. Within the field of communication, the role of theory in dealing with

practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often confront applied

issues such as how to improve the provisions of health care how to enhance the effectiveness of problem

solving organizational groups.

Assessing the quality of theory

So in assessing the quality of theory three related questions should be answered:

1. Does the theory solve the problem, regardless of whether that problem is empirical conceptual or

practical?

2. Does the solution compare favorably with alternative solutions?

3. Is the solution progressive in that it represents an improvement over its predecessor and opens up new

avenues for solving new problems?

Models in communication research

What are models?

Models are a theoretical and simplified representation of the real world. A model is not an explanatory

device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused with

theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is so close.

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Definitions

“A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. A model seeks to

show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between these elements”.

(McQuail).

Deutsch in 1952 pointed out that:

1. Model is a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set of

relevant points in an existing structure or process.

2. Models are indispensable for understanding the more complex processes.

3. This is a form of selection and abstraction.

So a successful pictorial model offers three major advantages:

1. They organize concepts

2. They explain processes and

3. They predict outcomes

They organize concepts

Models organize concepts by ordering and relating systems to each other and by providing us with

images of wholes that we might not otherwise perceive.

A model gives a general picture of a range of different particular circumstances.

They explain processes

Models explain processes by providing in simplified way information which would otherwise be

complicated or ambiguous. This gives a model a heuristic function, since it can guide the student or

researcher to key points of a process or system

They predict outcomes or the course of events

Models can at least be a basis for assigning probabilities to various alternative outcomes, and hence for

formulating hypotheses in research.

KINDS OF MODELS

Structural model

Functional model

Structural model

Some models claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon.

In this sense, a diagram of the components of a radio set or diagram of a digestive system etc, could be

described as “structural’.

Functional models

Functional models, describe systems in terms of energy, forces and their direction, the relations between

parts and the influence of one part on another. The communication models fall into this category, simply

all communication is in some degree dynamic and involves some elements of process or change

Before we study the communication models lets first look into the most general terms what

communication implies. It implies

• Sender (encoder)

• A channel

• A message

• A receiver (decoder)

• A receiver between sender and receiver

• An effect

• A context in which communication occurs and

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• A range of things to which messages refer

• Feedback – any process by which the communicator obtains information about whether

and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message

Three different ways of viewing communication processes

1. Linear model

2. Interactive model

3. Transactional

LINEAR MODELS

Linear models are based on the principles of stimulus-response psychology, in which a receiver is

affected (response) by a message (stimulus) that emanates from a communication source. These models

depict the communication process as a series of progressive, linear steps in the transmission of ideas

from one person to another.

Lasswell formula

Who says (communicator)

What to (message)

In which channel (channel)

To whom (receiver)

With what effect (effect)

Lasswell formula corresponding with communication research

Who says (control studies)

What to (content analysis)

In which channel (media analysis)

To whom (audience analysis)

With what effect (effect analysis)

Boaddock’s extension of the Lasswell formula

Who Says

What to

In which channel

To whom

Under what circumstances?

For what purpose?

With what effect)

Shannon-Weaver model

One of the first linear models of communication, known as the Shannon-Weaver model, (developed in

1940’s) described the process of telecommunication.

They developed a model that depicts a message emanating from an information source, which becomes

a signal after passing through a transmitter, depending upon the amount of noise or interference present,

the signal passes through to a receiver, where it is decoded as a message.

Westley - MacLean model

This model (originated in 1950s) differs from the Shannon-Weaver model in that they include

mechanism for FEEDBACK or return flow of information from a receiver to the original source, and

gate keeping, a mechanism (usually a person) that has the power to control information and even

prevent it from reaching a destination .

The gatekeeper was thought to be an important new dimension of communication models to many in

mass communication, because it serves as an analog for editors, e.g. who control and select the

messages that ultimately get to readers of newspapers or viewers of news programs.

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INTERACTIVE MODELS

This model which depicts communication as an interactive process originated in the 1950’s.The Osgood

and Schramm interactive model emphasizes the sharing of information between communicator, who

gives and receive information interactively.

Osgood and Schramm interactive model

The circular model describes communication as interactive and interpretive, with communicators almost

simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Each person alternates in his or her role as encoder

interpreter and decoder of shared messages.

TRANSACTIONAL MODELS

This model takes into consideration the character of the message and the psychological orientation of

the audience member as factors influencing the power of media effects.

OTA transactional model

The OTA (US office of technology assessment) transactional model separates communication into

three distinct processes:

1. Message formulation

2. Message interpretation

3. Message exchange

And emphasizes the interdependencies of the processes.

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LESSON 04

FROM COMMUNICATION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

Many communication terms take different meanings when they refer to mass communication. The term

mass communication emerged in late 1930s.

Nature of the communicator

Organized and complex organization e.g. production and distribution.

Extensive division of labor and a lot of professional communicators.

Nature of audience

Mass communication is directed toward a relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous audience.

• Large- millions, too many people for the communicator to interact with personally during

reasonable period of time.

• Heterogeneous- audiences employ a variety of positions within a society.

• Anonymous- individuals in the audience are personally unknown to the communicator.

Nature of communication experience

• Public- messages are not addressed to no one in particular, content is open from public.

• Rapid- reaches a large audience with relatively short time or space.

• Transient- messages made to be consumed immediately- here today, gone tomorrow. A most

frequently cited definition of mass communication is

“Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which specialized groups employ

technological devices (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content to large , heterogeneous

and widely dispersed audiences.”(Janowitz 1968)

Then mass communication is always part of an organized group and often a member of an institution

which has functions other than communication.

The receiver is always an individual but may often be seen by the sending organization as a group or

collectively with certain general attributes.

Channel

Channel includes large scale technologically based distribution devices and systems. The message in

mass communication is not a unique and transitory phenomenon but a mass produced and infinitely

repeatable symbolic structure, often of great complexity.

Of particular significance in mass communication are:-

1. The public and open nature of all communication.

2. The limited and controlled access to sending facilities.

3. The impersonality of the relationship between sender and receive.

4. The imbalance of the relationship between them.

5. The intervention of institutionalized arrangements between sender and receiver.

The process of mass communication is not synonymous with the mass media. It is the organized

technologies which make mass communication possible.

Development in the history of mass communication

DeFleur and Ball Rokeach in 1989 point out to a number of important developments in the history of

mass communication

1. Age of signs and signals

2. Age of speech and language

3. Age of writing- papyrus

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4. Age of printing – after 15th century-Gutenberg’s invention of moveable type and printing pres in

1456

5. Age of Mass Communication was ushered by widespread distribution of newspapers (1920

radio; 1940 TV)

It eroded the barrier of isolation among people in the world and produce significant changes in the

organization and functioning of a society – in commerce politics education in mere sociability gossip.

Mass media includes:

Print media

1. Books

2. Newspapers

i) In the beginning adversary of established power.

ii) Political press –for party advantage and political propaganda.

ii) Prestige press- high bourgeois capitalist class.

Electronic media

1. Film

2. Broadcasting

3. Recorded music VCR

New media - Telematix media

They combine telecommunication and information. It includes

• Video games

• Virtual reality

• CD- ROMs

They represent a challenge.

Decentralization – supply and choice are not longer predominantly in the hands of supplier of

communication.

High capacity- cable and satellite deliver overcomes the former restriction of cost distance and capacity

Interactivity- receiver can select answer back, exchange and linked to other receivers directly

Why study mass communication?

It is the major source of acquiring about the world knowledge -a cognitive approach a mental reality

about the world based on our experience with the media.

This metal attitude become the basis for all sorts of attitudes and behavior and has numerous effects on

our lives.

Media is also a place where many affairs of public life are played out both nationally and

internationally. The conducts of democratic or undemocratic politics significant social issues are

addressed.

Media is also a place where changing culture and values of societies and groups are constructed stored

and most visibly expressed. Primary key to fame and celebrity status.

Media has become the reality against which the real world is compared. The media view of the world

has become more real to many people than the real world itself.

Media are the single largest focus of leisure-time activity and means of entertainment. They help

organize and interrelate the rest of leisure. As a result a media has become a major and expanding

industry providing employment and wide range of political economic benefits.

That is why mass media is of wide interest and is subject to so much scrutiny and regulation as well as

theorizing. And we need to consider theories that deal primarily with the ways individual access and

process media content and the ways with which mass media sources influences those individuals.

Some sort of theory was needed to guide this task of media reform. The theory should answer questions

such as these:

1. Should media do something more than merely distribute whatever content will earn them

the greatest profits in the shortest time?

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2. Are there some essential public services that media should provide even if no immediate

profits can be earned?

3. Should media become involved in identifying and solving social problems?

4. Is it necessary or advisable for media to serve as watchdogs and protect consumers against

business fraud and corrupt bureaucrats?

5. What should we expect media to do for us in times of crisis?

These broad questions about the role of media are linked to issues concerning the day-to-day operation

of media.

1. How should media management and production jobs be structured?

2. What moral and ethical standards should guide media professionals?

3. Exactly what constitutes being a “journalist”?

4. Are there any circumstances when it is appropriate or even necessary to invade people’s privacy or

risk running their reputation?

5. Should television networks broadcast highly rated program even if it routinely contains high levels of

violence?

Answers to questions like these are found in NORMATIVE THEROY- a type of theory that describes

an ideal way for a media system to be structured and operated

Normative theories are different from most of the theories we will study. They don’t describe things as

they are nor do they provide scientific explanations or predictions.

Instead they describe the way things should be if some ideal values or principles are to be realized.

Normative theories come from many sources. Sometimes they are developed by media practitioners

themselves. Sometimes they are developed by social critics or academics. Sometimes it is the synthesis

of ideas developed over the past centuries.

A SHORT EXERCISE

Take a few minutes off, before we proceed, to think about your views concerning the role of media for

yourself, about your community and your state, your nation and your world.

• What are the most important things that media should and shouldn’t do?

• What standards of behavior should media practitioners follow as they perform these tasks?

• What about the high percentage of entertainment programming on television?

• Should there be less entertainment and more content that informs and educate?

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LESSON 05

NORMATIVE THEORIES

Our attention will be on the normative theory SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY as this is

predominantly used to guide and legitimize most large media in the world.

Social responsibility theory has emerged as seemingly as an ideal standard for media that further was

considered unnecessary. In the past 30 years although there has been an unprecedented growth and

consolidation of control in the media industries, and as a result, gigantic conglomerates dominate the

production and distribution of media content, they have found that SR theory provides practical

guidelines for their operations and legitimizes what they do.

We will contrast it with theories popular in different parts of the world. We will speculate about its

future, as new industries based on new media technologies emerge will social responsibility theory

continue to guide them or will alternative develop?

The origin of Normative Theories of Media

Before we go into details of SR theory first we will discuss other theories which ultimately led to SR

theory.

We will discuss

• Authoritarian Theory

• Libertarian Theory

• Chicago School

• Totalitarian media Theory.

• Civic or public journalism

Authoritarian Theory

Libertarian theory arose in opposition to Authoritarian theory- an idea that placed all forms of

communication under the control of a governing elite or authorities. Authorities justified their control as

a means to protect and preserve a divinely ordained social order.

In most of countries, this control rested in the hands of king who, in turn, granted royal charters or

licenses to media practitioners. These practitioners could be jailed for violating charters and charters or

licenses could be revoked. Censorship of all types, therefore, was easily possible.

Authoritarian control tended to be exercised in arbitrary, erratic ways.

Sometimes, considerable freedom might exist to publicize minority viewpoints and culture as long as

authorities didn't perceive a direct threat to their power.

Unlike Totalitarianism, authoritarian theory doesn't prioritize cultivation of a homogeneous, national

culture. it only requires acquiescence (compliance) to a governing elite.

Libertarian Theory

In rebelling against authoritarian theory early libertarians argued that there should be no laws governing

media operations. Free press means that all forms of media must be totally unregulated. Early

Libertarian argued that if individuals could be freed from arbitrary limits on communication imposed by

church and state, they would “naturally” follow the dictates of their conscience, seek truth, engage in

public debate, and ultimately create a better life for themselves and others. They believed strongly in the

power of unrestricted public debate and discussion to create more natural way of structuring society. In

AEROPAGETICA, a powerful libertarian published in 1644 by, John Milton asserted that:

“In a fair debate good and truthful arguments will always win out over lies and deceit. If this is true it

followed, then a new and better social order could be forged using public debate.”

This idea came to be referred to as MILTON’S SELF-RIGHTING PRINCIPLE, and is still cited by

contemporary media professionals. However, the author of Declaration of Independence, Thomas

Jefferson believed in the Self-righting principle so strongly that he once said:

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“Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers

without government, I should not hesitate to prefer the latter.”

The writing of Milton was developed in the North American colonies the support was found in writings

of John Stuart Mill who argued in ON LIBERTY, that

“The peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race,

posterity as well as the existing generation, those who dissent from the opinion , even more than who

hold it .If the opinion is right , they are deprived of the opportunity of exchanging error for truth; if

wrong, they lose what is almost as great a benefit , the clearer perception and livelier impression of

truth produced by its collision with error.”

These libertarian ideals are also seen as the heart of the United States long-term experiment with

democratic self-government. The American Revolution against Britain was legitimized by libertarian

ideals. Patrick Henry’s famous comment

“Give me liberty or Give me Death.”

These libertarian principles were also adopted in the “Bill of Rights”. (First 10 amendments to U.S.

constitution). It asserted that all individuals have natural rights no government, community, or group

can unduly infringe upon or take away. The ability to exercise dissent, to band together with others to

resist laws that people find to be wrong, to print or broadcast ideas, opinions and beliefs- all of these

rights are proclaimed as central to democratic self government.

Unfortunately, most early libertarians had a unrealistic view of how long it would take to find the

“truth” and establish an ideal social order. In the 18th century it became clear that “truth” couldn’t be

quickly or easily established, some libertarians became discouraged. They drifted between libertarian

and authoritarian views. But despite the priority given to communication freedom, one sees number of

restrictions on communication, accepted by media practitioners and media consumers. Examples, Libel

laws to check the publication of information that will damage reputations. Laws against offensive

language, pornography, information that would interfere with a defendant’s right to a fair trial.

Whenever new media technologies are invented, it is necessary to decide how they should be regulated.

The debate over communication freedom never ends, sometimes the balance shifts toward expanding

freedom and other times, freedom is curtailed.

The question is why it is necessary to place limits on communication freedom. The common reason

could be, where do the rights guaranteed to you by the constitution end and those of another begins?

What happens when groups attempt to stir up hatred and resentment against racial or ethnic minorities?

Should media practitioners be allowed to invade our homes, publish erroneous information about us, or

deceive us with false advertising? Do media professionals have the right to produce and distribute

anything that will earn profits, or should some limits be placed on them?

If so, who should place and enforce those limits? If laws are written to protect individuals from

irresponsible media, can these laws become a means of censoring the media?

These feelings were particularly developed in the United States in the 1800s, during the penny press and

yellow journalism eras. Public confidence in both business and government was shaken by recurring

depressions, widespread corruption and injustice. Public respect for newspapers also receded as

publishers pursued profits and created news to sell papers. Social movement sprang up to call for new

laws and greater government regulation. A group who believed in direct regulation of media, most often

by a government agency or commission. These include advocates of TECHNORATIC CONTROL,

people like Harold Lasswell and Walter Lippmann.

They argued that media practitioners can’t be trusted to communicate responsibly or to use media to

serve vital public needs. Some sought of oversight or control is necessary to ensure that important needs

are satisfied. The views of these advocates were considered most seriously during times of crisis when

we need media to serve specific needs

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Anti-trust legislation was enacted. Libertarians feared that these laws and regulations would go too far,

they sought to rekindle public support for liberation ideals. So they developed an idea of SELF

REGULATING MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS. And hence, formed a NEW FORM OF RADICAL

LIBERTARIANISM.

Self-regulating marketplace of ideas

In libertarianism, the notion that ideas should be put before the public, and from that “marketplace’ the

public will choose the best. This idea is a variation of a fundamental principle of capitalism- the notion

of self-regulating market. In classical capitalist theory as formulated by Adam Smith, there is little need

for the government to regulate markets. An open and competitive marketplace should regulate itself. If a

product is in high demand, prices will “naturally” rise as consumers compete to buy it. This encourages

other manufacturers to produce the product. Once demand is met by increased manufacturing, the price

falls. If one manufacturer charges too much for a product, then competitors will cut their prices to attract

buyers. No government interference is necessary to protect consumers or to force manufacturers to meet

consumer needs. Another term used to refer to these ideas is the Laissez-faire doctrine.

Laissez-faire doctrine

The idea that government shall allow business to operate freely and without official intrusion. The same

idea of ‘free marketplace of ideas’ when applied to mass media it meant that if ideas are ‘traded’ freely

among people, the correct or best ideas will prevail. The ideas compete and the best will be ‘bought’. So

in the media system the marketplace of ideas meant that if someone comes up with a good idea and then

transmits it through some form o mass communication. And people like the message. Then people buy

the message, pay for its production and distribution costs.

Once these costs are covered, the message produce earns a profit. If people are wise message

consumers, then the producers of the best and most useful messages will become rich and develop large

media enterprises while the producers of bad messages will fail. If good ideas succeed these ideas

should become more easily available at lower cost. Similarly bad ideas cost should rise and access to

them should lessen. And eventually truth should triumph as envisioned by the early libertarians.

Limitations

But there are some difficulties in applying logic. As media content is far less tangible than other

consumer products. The meaning of individual messages can vary tremendously form one person to the

next. Just what is being traded when news stories or television dramas are bought and sold? When we

buy newspapers we don’t buy individual stories we also buy other features which we might find

offensive but others might not.

Advertisers buy time on the TV shows; they do not necessarily buy the rightness or correctness of the

program's ideas. Sponsors pay more to advertise on programs with large audiences. If the advertiser

support permits bad messages to be distributed for free-maybe people are less discriminating if they

don’t have to directly pay to receive these messages? So the media market place is a bit more

complicated than the marketplace for toothpaste, and shampoos.

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LESSON 06

HUTCHINS COMMISSION ON FREEDOM, CHICAGO SCHOOL & BASIC

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

So during the 1920s and 1930s a new normative theory of mass communication began to emerge that

rejected both radical libertarian and ideas of technocratic control. As pressure for government regulation

of media mounted, industry leaders responded with efforts to professionalize. Rather than cede control

of media to a government agency, media managers went on record with pledges to serve public needs.

Industry codes of ethics began to formalize another important conception about the role of media-that of

a watchdog guarding the welfare of the public. It assumed that media should continually scan the social

world and alert the public to problems.

Investigations of corruption proved so popular that the media was envisioned as an independent social

institution, a FOURTH ESTATE of government, business, religion, education and family-serve the

public. This perspective assumed that once people are informed about wrong-doing, incompetence, or

inefficiencies, they will take action against it , the masthead of an a paper said that

“Give light and the People will find their way.”

Despite moves toward professionalization and self-regulation, pressure for greater government

regulation of media mounted throughout World War II and continued during the anti-communist

agitation that followed.

So Henry Luce, CEO of Time Inc., provided funding for an independent commission to make

recommendations concerning the role of the press.

The Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the press was established in 1942 and released a major

report of its findings in 1947.The Commission members were sharply divided between those who held

strongly libertarian views and those who thought some form of press regulation was necessary. Those

who favored regulation were fearful that the marketplace of ideas was much too vulnerable to

subversion by antidemocratic forces; most of them were impressed by the Chicago School.

Chicago School

Chicago School envisioned modern cities as “Great Communities” comprising hundreds of small social

groups- everything from neighborhood social organizations to citywide associations. For these Great

Communities to develop, all the constituent groups had to work together and contribute. These were

referred to as pluralistic groups in recognition of their cultural and racial diversity.

The Chicago School Opposed marketplace of ideas notions and argued that unregulated mass media

inevitably served the interests and tastes of large or socially dominant groups. Small, weak, pluralistic

groups would be either neglected or degraded.

This perspective also held that ruthless elites could use media as a means of gaining personal political

power. These demagogues could manipulate media to transmit propaganda to fuel hatred and fear

among a majority unite them against minorities, e.g. as Hitler used the media to arouse hatred against

the Jews. Although majority of the Hutchins commission members had some sympathy for Chicago

School ideas, they opposed any direct form of press regulation.

The Commission members faced a serious dilemma. On the one hand they recognized that marketplace

of ideas was not self-regulating and the media were doing less than they could to provide services to

minority groups. The members also feared that any form of press regulation would open the door to

official control of media – the very thing they were trying to prevent. Without some form of regulation,

a ruthless and cunning demagogue might be able to use hate propaganda to gain power in the United

States. But establishing a national press council might put too much control in the hands of existing

elites and they might abuse it.

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Ultimately the Hutchins Commission members decided to place their faith in media practitioners and

call on them to redouble their efforts to serve the public.

The synthesis of ideas put forward in the Hutchins Commission report has become known as the Social

Responsibility Theory of the Press. It emphasized the need for an independent press that scrutinizes

other social institutions and provides objective, accurate, news reports.

The most innovative feature of SR theory was its call for media to be responsible for fostering

productive and creative “Great Communities”. It said that media should do this by prioritizing cultural

pluralism- by becoming the voice of all the people- not just elite groups or groups that had dominated

national, regional or local culture in the past.

Dennis McQuail in 1987 summarized the basic principles of social responsibility theory as the

following:-

1. Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to society.

2. These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high or professional standards of

informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance.

3. In accepting and applying these obligations, media should be self-regulating within the

framework of law and established institutions.

4. The media should avoid whatever might lead to crime, violence or civil disorder or give offense

to minority groups.

5. The media as a whole should be pluralist and reflect the diversity of their society, giving access

to various points of view and to rights of reply.

6. Society and the public have a right to expect high standards of performance, and intervention

can be justified to secure the public good.

7. Journalists and media professionals should be accountable to society as well as to employers

and the market

SR theory has proved quite durable. Most journalists take seriously the central values of social

responsibility theory such as pluralism and cultural diversity. An example of a comprehensive code,

which also has an international reference, is the International Principles of professional Ethics in

Journalism, drawn up under the auspices of UNESCO. Unlike most industry codes, it does not use the

word ‘freedom’ but refers frequently to rights and responsibilities, there are ten clauses headed and

summarized as follows:

1. People’s right to true information- the right of people to express themselves freely through the

media of communication

2. The journalistic dedication to objective reality;- this aims to provide public with adequate

material to facilitate the formation o an accurate and comprehensive picture of the world.

3. The journalist's social responsibility.- this emphasizes the fact that journalistic information is

social good not just a commodity

4. The Journalist's Professional integrity. This deals especially with rights not to work against

personal conviction and other matters of personal ethics.

5. Public access and participation. This includes the right of rectification and reply.

6. Respect for privacy and Human Dignity

7. Respect for the Public interest. This relates to respect for the national community , it democratic

institutions and public morals

8. Respect of Universal Values and diversity of cultures. This calls for respect for human rights,

social progress, national liberation, peace, democracy.

9. Elimination of War and Other Great Evils confronting humanity .This calls for abstention from

justifying aggression, arms proliferation , violence, hatred , discrimination.

10. Promotion of a New World information and communication order. This is directed especially at

the need for decolonization and democratization of information and communication.

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However there is little evidence that have developed an effective means of promoting these values

through their work. E.g. journalists continue to define the routine work of community and minority

groups as non-newsworthy, inflammatory remarks made by militant group leaders are widely publicized

with no information about the social conditions that prompt the remarks.

Before we proceed to discuss a contemporary media movement designed to breathe new life into social

responsibility theory, let’s first discuss the Totalitarian media Theory.

Totalitarian Media Theory

Totalitarian media Theory is a normative theory calling for suppression of pluralistic groups and the use

of media under the control of the dominant political party to propagate a strong centralized political

culture. Just as libertarianism arose as an alternative to authoritarian ideas, social responsibility theory is

a response to totalitarian ideas. Totalitarian media theories, such as those developed by the Nazis or by

former Soviet communists, called for suppression of Pluralistic groups and exalted the necessity for

propagating a strong centralized political culture. Direct control of the media by the dominant political

party was seen as essential to prevent deviant, disruptive views from being expressed by enemies of the

people. The party whether it is National Socialist or Soviet Communist, must be trusted with total

control over media so that it can educate the masses and lead them into a utopian future.

So in contrast to totalitarianism theory, SR theory encouraged media practitioners to see themselves as

front-line participants in the battle to preserve democracy in a world drifting inexorably toward

totalitarianism.

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LESSON 07

CIVIC JOURNALISM, DEVELOPMENT MEDIA THEORY & DEMOCRATIC

PARTICIPANT THEORY

Civic or Public Journalism

Keeping the spirit of the SR theory in view many newspapers began practicing civic journalism, actively

engaging the members of their areas in reporting important civic issues. It is a form of interactive

journalism, where the newspaper actively enlists and engages people from all walks of life in the

creation of the stories and reports it develops.

According to Gunaratne in 1998 civic or public journalism may be defined as:

An effort by print and broadcast journalists to reach out to the public more aggressively in the reporting

process, to listen to how citizens frame their problems and what citizens see as solutions to those

problems, and then use that information to enrich their newspaper or broadcast report.

OR

A movement to create a more active and engaged public by self-consciously giving voice to the people’s

agenda.

OR

A movement to steer journalism towards reinvigorating public life, which many see as excluding

ordinary citizens and devaluing the need to inform them.

Forms of civic journalism

So civic journalism can happen in a variety of ways:

1. By giving a detailed and long-running coverage of important or controversial community issues,

employing citizens as part of the coverage and inviting response and debate through devices such as

hotlines and open forums. E.g. issues like state of public schools, sanitation problems, problems in

public hospitals etc. In these reports local people and groups, local problems and local solutions are

highlighted rather than, national data on minority unemployment or how schools in another state meet

the challenges.

2. Another form of civic journalism is the assembly of citizen panels, composed of diverse people and

interests that meet at regular intervals throughout the life of an ongoing news event, e.g. legislative

budget hearings or a political campaign.

The reactions of the citizens to developments are reported as news.

3. Or developing citizen roundtables, inviting people from different constituencies to hash out their

differences and attempt to find some common ground. These interactions are then reported as news.

Proponents of civic journalism see it as the embodiment of social responsibility theory and a solid form

of community service.

The criticisms on civic journalism are:

1. Competition for advertising revenues from other more national news media like television and

the Web.

2. Too much concern and interests of citizens with personal or narrow agendas.

McQuail in 1987 cites several normative theories that have been developed in other parts of the world.

These include

• Development media theory

• Democratic-participant theory

Development Media Theory

Development media theory was intended to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition

from underdevelopment and colonialism to independence and better material conditions often lack the

infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills and even the audiences needed to sustain

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media institutions comparable to those of the First world or Second world, in which the four theories

could take root.

Goals of development media theory

It emphasizes the following goals:

1. The primacy of the national development task

2. The pursuit of cultural and informational autonomy

3. Support for democracy

4. Solidarity with other developing countries.

This theory advocates media support for an existing political regime and its efforts to bring about

national economic development. By supporting government development efforts, media aid society at

large. This theory argues that unless a nation is well-established and its economic development well

underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of government. Journalists must not pick apart

government efforts to promote development but rather assist government in implementing such policies.

This theory recognizes the need for some form of government intervention into the operation of media.

It envisions setting up:

o Government agencies.

o Monitor training and licensing of media practitioners;

o Control development of media institutions;

o Regularly censor-media content before distribution.

o Issue regular guidelines for day-to-day operation of media

Although different degree of self-regulation are encouraged, media practitioners are not trusted by

government officials to carry out their responsibilities without guidance and constant monitoring.

Criticism

An updated version of authoritarian theory and that media should never surrender the power to criticize

government policies even if it risks causing the policies to fail.

Democratic-Participant Theory

Democratic-participant theory was proposed in recognition of new media developments and of

increasing criticism of the dominance of the main mass media by private or public monopolies.

From the 1960’s onwards call could be heard for alternative, grass-roots media, expressing the needs of

citizens. The theory supports the right to relevant local information, the right to answer back and the

right to use the new means of communication for interaction and social action in small-scale settings of

community, interest groups or subculture. This theory challenged the necessity for and desirability of

uniform, centralized, high-cost, commercialized, professionalized or state-controlled media.

In their place should be encouraged multiple, small-scale, local, non-institutional, committed media

which link senders to receivers and also favor horizontal patterns of interaction.

Practical expressions of the theory

The practical expressions of the theory are many and varied, including the underground or alternative

press, community cable television, micro-media in rural settings, wall posters Media for women and

ethnic minorities. The theory reflects the market as a suitable institutional form, as well as all top-down

professional provision and control. Participation and interaction are key concepts.

Democratic-participant theory advocates media support for cultural pluralism at a grass-root level.

Media are to be used to stimulate and empower pluralistic groups. Unlike social responsibility theory,

which assumes that mass media can perform this function, democratic-participant theory call for

development of innovative, ‘small’ media that can be directly controlled by group members.

If they cannot afford such media, then government subsidies should be provided to them existing small

media should by identified and funded. Training programs should be established to teach group

members how to operate small media.

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This theory argues that surviving remnants of ethnic groups be given access to media and allowed to

revive or stabilize their culture. This theory has been most fully developed in western Europe and is part

of a grass-roots revival of historically significant cultural and ethnic groups. In Yugoslavia and Kosovo

In Wales e.g. welsh language programming has been successfully aired.

Democratic participant theory is a reaction. The term democratic-participant expresses a sense of

disillusionment with established political parties and with media system, which are seen as having

broken faith with the people.

There is also an element of reaction against the mass society, which is over-organized and alienating.

Free press theory is seen to fail because of its subversion by the forces of capitalism, while social

responsibility ends up as just another form of complicity with the bureaucratic state or a mere self-

serving by entrenched media professional.

Both freedom and self-regulation are seen to have failed

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LESSON 08

LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESS THEORY

Although the ideas discussed about the role of the media in society are still relevant, the attempt to

formulate consistent theories of the press is bound to breakdown:

1. Due to underlying interest and political ideology which are present in any society

2. Due to outdated notion of the press as providing mainly only political news and information. As for

instance realistically speaking there is cinema and music industry video market or good deal of sport,

fiction and entertainment on television which is much more than the political information and news.

It is unsatisfactory to leave it outside the scope of social-normative thinking.

These theories were also formulated in very general terms and did not describe or underlie any actual

media system.

The framework of theory was formulated largely from a north American perspective at one point in

history taking little note of the distinctive features of public service broadcasting in other countries.

Media change: new normative theory needed for new times.

Apart from the relative decline of print media and rise of electronic media, other changes are under way

in the media .The media are proliferating in their technical and institutional forms as much as in the

volume of content produced and disseminated. This abundance of media is making it difficult to judge

what counts as an indispensable service and what the respective roles of different media is society might

be.

Then there is the phenomenon of convergence between media, referring to fading of once clear

boundaries between print-, broadcast and telecommunication-based media.

Media is also becoming Transnational- in ownership, financing organization productions, distribution,

content, reception and even regulation. A related trend is Conglomeration and the formation of large

multi-media enterprises which not only cross nation boundaries but also lead to vertical and horizontal

concentration.

Conglomeration leads to fears of loss of creative independence and of cultural diversity. Due to this

there has been a general decline of public regulation of media and an increased role for the market in

shaping the media. This trend is only partly a result of greater commercialization since it also reflects a

general decline in normative certainties and an increase in libertarian thinking.

A revised framework of normative principles for media structure and performance which follows is still

based on the presumption that the media are widely expected to serve the ‘public interest’ or ‘general

welfare’ whether by design or not Concept of ‘public interest’ in media. This means , in practice that

mass media are not the same as any other business or service industry, but often carry out some tasks,

which contribute to the wider and longer-term benefit of society as a whole, especially in cultural and

political matters, over and above their own obvious goals. But this does not imply that media can

legitimately be obliged to conform to some version of the popular will or alternative be directed to carry

out some particular mission as determined by the state or politicians. Sometimes the view of the

majority has been viewed as public interest .Due to public debate there is never a fixed version of public

interest, but always changing.

Media issues of normative concern on which controversy has centered

1. Concentration and monopoly

2. News and information quality

3. Security and social order

4. Morals and decency

5. Cultural quality and commercialism

6. Cultural autonomy and integrity

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Concentration and monopoly

The new industrialized media order endangers democracy and freedom contained in the concentrations

of power in the hands of press ‘barons’, especially in the USA and Britain. This trend has continued and

spread worldwide.

The phenomenon of one-news-paper cities and the formation of large chains, provoked a fear of reduce

freedom and independence of news and views.

It is also threatened the balance representation of opposed political views,

And so a loss of political choice for the reader reduced opportunities for access to media channels and

generally reduced media diversity.

News and information quality

Second concern is a long-standing theme of debate is the concern for the general quality of the news

about events of the day and of the world as supplied to the average citizen, who depends on the media in

order to reach informed choices and judgments. The press is often accused of sensationalism and

superficiality of omissions inaccuracy and even falsification and lying and Failure to cover international

news in comprehensive and balanced way. So the need resist warlike, nationalist and racist propaganda.

Security and social order

The most controversial issue is also that of relationship of media to security and authority of the state.

The authorities everywhere have shown a consistent inclination to want to manage the news even if they

stop short of censorship.

This is more in the case of broadcasting than with the printed press.

Morals and decency

Another issue of concern is the issue of Morals Decency and portrayals of matter to do with

pornographic sex, crime and violence. The protection of minors from undesirable influences or the

portrayal of women in degrading manner.

Commercialism

The term commercialism has many meanings, but in one influential view it stands opposed to number of

key social-cultural values. Commercialization has been associated with manipulation, consumerism lack

of originality and creativity lead to homogeneity and neglect of minorities who do not provide profitable

audience or advertising markets media should contribute to education culture and the arts

Cultural issues

Media is ceasing to reflect the culture and the circumstances of their intended publics and may

undermine the local language and cultural identity as a result of the transnational flow of content. It is a

potential problem for countries which are under the influence of a foreign media flow for other reasons

for instance India and Pakistan.

Response to these issues:

So what is required is:

1. Media freedom

2. Media equality

3. Media diversity

4. Information quality-objectivity concept- means adopting

5. Social order and solidarity

6. Cultural order

Media Freedom

There are many version of freedom.

Freedom is a condition, rather than a criterion of performance. It refers primarily to rights of free

expression and free formation of opinion. However for these rights to be realized there must also be

access to channels and opportunities to receive diverse kinds of information. So what freedom of

communication calls for is absence of censorship, license or other controls by government – unhindered

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right to publish and disseminate news and opinions, equal rights of free reception and access to news,

views, education.

Freedom for news media to obtain news media to obtain information from relevant sources.

Absence of concealed influence from media owners or advertisers on news selection and on opinions

expressed

An active and critical editorial policy in presenting news and opinion and a creative, innovative and

independent publishing policy in respect of art and culture.

Benefits of communication freedom

i) Systematic and independent public scrutiny of those in power and an adequate supply of reliable

information about their activities- watchdog or critical role of media.

ii) Stimulation of an active and informed democratic system and social life.

iii) The chance to express idea, beliefs and views about the world

iv) Continued renewal and change of culture and society

v) Increase in the amount and variety of freedom

Media equality

Equality requires that no special favour be given to power-holders and that access to media should be

given to contenders for office and in general, to oppositional or deviant opinions, perspectives or claims.

In relation to business clients of the media, equality requires that all legitimate advertisers be treated on

the same basis the same rates and conditions. It also implies that the normal principles of the market

should operate freely and fairly. Equality supports policies of universal provision in broadcasting and

telecommunication and of sharing out the costs of basic services.

Media diversity

The diversity principle applied to actual media system and content have the following main elements.

1. Media should reflect in their structure and content the various social, economic and cultural realities

of the societies and communities in which they operate in a more or less proportional.

2. Media should offer more or less equal chances of access to the voices of various social cultural

minorities which make up the society.

3. Media should serve as a forum for different interests and points of views in a society.

4. Media should offer relevant choices of content at one point in time and also variety over time of a

kind which corresponds to the needs and interests of their audiences.

Information quality

The concept of Objectivity contains the following elements:-

• A position of detachment and neutrality towards the object of reporting

• Lack of partisanship

• Attachments to accuracy and other truth criteria

• Lack of ulterior motive or service to third party

Main information quality requirements

• Media should provide comprehensive supply of relevant news and background information

about events in the society and the world around.

• Information should be objective in the sense of being accurate, honest, sufficiently

complete, true to reality, reliable, and separating facts from opinion.

• Information should be balanced and fair impartial-reporting alternative perspectives in a

non-sensational , unbiased way

Social order and solidarity

1. In respect of the relevant public which they serve at national or local level, media should provide

channels of inter communication and support.

2. The media may contribute to social integration by paying concerned attention to socially

disadvantaged or injured groups

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3. The media should not undermine the forces of law order by encouraging or symbolically rewarding

crime or social disorder.

4. In matters of social security such as war or threat of war or terrorism may be limited by consideration

of national interest.

5. On questions of morals, decency and tastes especially in matters of the portrayals of sex, and violence

and the use of language the media should in some degree observe the reigning norms or what is broadly

publicly acceptable and avoid causing grave public offence.

Cultural order

1. Media content should reflect and express the language and contemporary culture of the people

which the media serve; it should be relevant of current and typical social experience.

2. Some priority should be given to the educational role of the media and to the expression and

continuity of the best in the cultural heritage of a country.

3. Media should encourage cultural creativity and originality and the production of work of high

quality according aesthetic, moral intellectual and occupational criteria.

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LESSON 09

MCQUAIL’S FOUR KINDS OF THEORIES

Social science is controversial because it suggests causal relationships between things in the

environment, people’s attitudes, values and behaviors. Society and media relationship is a causal

relationship.

Theory is any set of ideas which can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide action or predict a

consequence.

Theories help us understand or explain phenomena we observe in social world. They are the net with

which we catch the world or the way in which we sense of the social life.

Theories are stories about how and why events occur… Scientific theories begin with the assumption

that the universe, including the social universe created by acting human beings, reveals certain basic and

fundamental properties that explain the ebb and flow of events in specific process. Theory is also

defined as scholars’ best representation of some state of affairs based on systematic observation.

According to McQuail there are four kinds of theories

1. Social scientific theory

2. Normative theory

3. Operational theory

4. Everyday theory

Social scientific theory

• These theories are based on and guide empirical research

• Permit statements about nature, workings and effects of mass communication

• These statements or hypothesis are tested by making systematic and objective observations

regarding mass media, media use and media influence.

• E.g. TV and aggression link.

Normative theory

• This form of theories explains how ideal media ought to operate within a specific system of

social values.

• Such theory usually stems from the broader social philosophy or ideology of a given society.

• E.g. theories of the press’s role in a democracy would most likely fit here as would theories of

media in an Islamic republic or an authoritarian.

Operational theory

• This kind of theory is normative but with a practical bent.

• It involves not only HOW media should ideally operate but how they CAN operate to meet

specific ends.

• Such as how to select news, please audience, effective advertising keep within the limits of

what society permits and relate effectively to sources and audiences

Everyday or common-sense theory

• This refers to the knowledge we all have from our long experience with media which enables us

to understand what is going on,

• How a medium might fit into our daily lives,

• How its content is intended to be read, how we like to read it

• What are differences in different media (genre in content).

• On the basis of such theory we make consistent choices from tastes and make judgments.

• This affects the media influence on the individuals

• This causes public debate about the media

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Other commentators on mass communication have suggested other means of understand about mediated

communication.

Critical theory

• A loose confederation of ideas held together by a common interest in the quality of

communication and human life

• Concerned with inequality and oppression

• They not only observe they also criticize

• Concerned with the conflict of interest in the society and the

• Ways communication perpetuates domination of one group over another

• Media effects a historical perspective

• History of the scientific study of Media effects.

Media effects - a historical perspective

• Examine the concern for media effects in historical perspective and the historical evidence for

actual media effects on opinions and behaviors since the invention of the printing press.

• The society’s elite which recognized potential societal influences from exposure to the printed

word. Such as the religious and the government elites that is why:

1. used the press to for their own ends

2. attempted to censorship

3. control publications and thereby silence opposition voices

4. Such fears even exist today in totalitarian societies, in which leaders suppress or control

media to maintain power.

In 1559, Pope Paul IV issued an Index of Prohibited Books which included Protestant books along with

occult and pornography books and opposition books---- Martin Luther defied the pope and used the

printing press to spread Reformation literature to the masses…. And so rebels and imprisonment and

punishments. In the 16th century King Henry VII felt so threatened that he prosecuted those who

published material offensive to the crown. Insisted on licensing and held English press under strict

control. In late 1700s in the United States Benjamin Franklin --- Philadelphia ‘Aurora’—leading voice

for the cause of Republicanism in the United States.

So press affects the ‘public opinion’. A judge said that:

“Give to any set of men the command of the press and you give them the command of the country, for

you give them the command of public opinion, which commands everything.”

Public concern for “indecent’ material

• Concern for the ill effects of media violence and sexually explicit material

•

prostitutes and other miscreants and low lives of society became immensely popular among

many readers – and so became a target of extreme criticism.

• Sensationalism promoted

• Competitors in print

• So on several occasions angry readers attacked the press---“moral war”

It was in the later half of the 19th century when new technologies and the spread of literacy made

possible the development of remarkable new forms of communication – mass communication. New

media technologies were invented and popularized and apprehensions were that:

🕘 New technology would disrupt peaceful, rural communities

🕘 Force people to in urban areas to serve as a convenient work force in large factories,

mines or bureaucracies

🕘 For some mass media symbolized every thing that was wrong in the urban life

🕘 Media lowered class tastes

🕘 Brings political unrest

In the early 19th century ‘penny press’—reports on the activities of arrested thieves, drunks

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🕘 Violated cultural norms

🕘 The old social order of the landed aristocracy was crumbling an was its culture and

politics

• Dominant perspective that emerged during this period was of mass society theory. Among the

originators of mass society notions was a German sociologist, Ferdinand Tonnies. He tried to

differentiate between the earlier form of social organization and the European society as it

existed in the late 19th century. The two terms he used were:-

1. Gemeinshaft or folk society

2. Gesellshaft or modern, industrial society

Gemeinshaft or folk society

People were bound by strong ties of family, tradition, rigid social roles- basic social institutions were

very powerful---- he argued that folk society yearn for the order and meaning and they often find life in

modern societies to be troublesome and without meaning. in Modern or industrial societies people are

often bound by relatively weak social institutions base upon rational choices rather than tradition.

French Sociologist, Emile Durkheim also offered more or less a similar theory about the dichotomy in

the society.

1. Mechanical solidarity- compared folk societies to machines in which people were little more than

cogs. The machines are ordered and durable, but people were forced by collective consensus to perform

traditional social roles—bound by consensus to one another like the parts of a great engine.

2. Organic solidarity- he compared the modern social orders to animals. As they grow, animals

undergo profound changes in their physical form. The animals are made up of cell and cell serve very

different purposes and also undergo changes. Similarly in modern social orders the people grow and

changes along with the society at large- for their survival. So organic solidarity is characterized by

specialization, division of labor and interdependence and in this regard media role was appreciated to

permit important new social bonds formation.

Later the ails (decline of common morality) of the society must be cured by social pathologist-

sociologists- not by reverting to old social orders but scientifically chosen forms would solve the

problems inherent in modernity.

Characteristics of the mass society and mass audience

🕘 Large number

🕘 Widely dispersed

🕘 Non-interactive and anonymous

🕘 Heterogeneous

🕘 Not organized or self acting

And so the theory made a several basic assumption about individuals and the role of media and the

nature of social change.

1. First assumption was that media is cancerous force within society and must be purged

or totally restructured- govt control – Nazi- BBC—also George Orwell novel in 1948

‘1984’ Big brother watches every one, televised propaganda was used to foment hatred

against external enemies and promote love of Big Brother

2. Media have the power to reach out and directly influence the minds of average people-

direct effects assumptions – usually negative- average citizens are portrayed as helpless

and are being manipulated by the power of the media e.g. violence on TV, or in comics

or heavy metal music and average teenagers

3. once peoples minds are corrupted by media, all sorts of bad, long-term consequences

result-bringing not only ruin to individual lives but also certain social problems on a

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vast scale-every social problem is attributed to the media e.g. teenage delinquents

disaffected housewives- seeing to many soap operas- drug addicts

4. Average people are vulnerable to media because they have been cut off and isolated

from traditional social institutions that previously protected them from manipulation.

The argument is, in modern societies when an individual is isolated and is striped off

his traditional protective family structures provided by the traditional community he

started believing whatever media communicated to them. Media became the most

trusted and valued source of messages about politics, entertainment, religion, education

and on and on e.g. story telling replaced by movies, television and videos.

5. Mass media inevitably debase higher forms of culture, bringing about a general decline

in civilization.

This criticism was held by Western cultural and educational elites- in decades following the

enlightenment (18th century European social and Philosophical movement that stressed rational thought)

these elites thought themselves as responsible for nurturing and promulgating higher forms of culture,

not only within their own societies but also around the world. (White, male, western, protestant) so

media was viewed as a threat to high culture- e.g. rather than glorifying gangsters highlight great leaders

or religious leaders etc. media should not lower people tastes by giving them what they want but should

give what they need. (BBC)

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LESSON 10

PROPAGANDA THEORIES

In today’s session we will see:

• How the idea of Propaganda emerged in the mass society and mass media relationship.

• And then look the theories that were developed to understand and control it as these were

the first true media theories earlier within the mass society theory media was seen as one of

the disruptive forces.

Propaganda Theories

But in propaganda theories, media became the focus of attention. Propaganda theorists specifically

analyzed media content and speculated about its influence. They sought to understand and explain the

ability of messages to persuade and convert thousands or even millions of individuals to extreme

viewpoints.

In the beginning of the 20th century traditionalist elite propagandists had TWO alternatives:

• The American way – stood for truth justice and freedom.

• Totalitarianism – communism and Nazis- falsehood, evil and slavery---- Of course they had

their own versions of truth justice and freedom.

Initially Americans resisted the propaganda for it violated the most basic rules of fair democratic

political communication - for propaganda freely used lied and deception to persuade- what they believed

in was that people should be taught to critically evaluate propaganda messages, then they will be able to

reject them as unfair and false. They believed that public education could save democracy. But

optimism faded as both communism and Nazism spread from Europe to America in 1930s. So

propaganda experts became convinced that even if public education was a practical means of resisting

propaganda, it would simply take too long. Time was running out. Propaganda must be resisted by

whatever means possible so if the power of the propaganda could be harnessed to promote good and just

ideals that would just not counter the threat but have a tool that could help build a better social order –

white propaganda.

Origin of Propaganda

Term originated in the 16th century during the counter-Reformation. Used by the Society for the

Propagation of the Faith- The term has since come to refer to the no-holds-barred use of communication

to propagate specific beliefs and expectations ultimate goal is to change the way people act e.g. in

World War I Nazi Germany’s propaganda division said the secret to effective propaganda is to simplify

a complex issue and repeat that simplification over and over again.

Effective propaganda is covert.

Disinformation- false information to discredit the opposition.

Black propaganda – deliberate and strategic transmission of lies.

White propaganda – intentional suppression of potentially harmful information and ideas, combined

with deliberate promotion of positive information or ideas to distract attention from problematic events.

Grey propaganda – involves transmission of information or ideas that might or might not be false.

Engineering of Consent

The totalitarian propagandist conceptualized as a very practical means of mass manipulation an

effective mechanism for controlling large populations so that the dominant majority came to have and

act upon certain beliefs and attitudes.

Propagandists typically held elitist and paternalistic views about their audiences. They believed that

people needed to be changed for their own good.

They believed that people were so irrational or so illiterate so in-attentive that it was necessary to

coerce, seduce or trick them into learning bits of misinformation.

They also believed in suppressing opposition.

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Three Theories That Influenced the Propaganda Theories In 1930s

1. Behaviorism

2. Freudianism

3. Magic bullet theories

Behaviorism

John B. Watson - an animal experimentalist who argued that all human action is merely a conditioned

response to external environmental stimuli. Media provides external stimuli that triggered immediate

responses.

Freudianism

Sigmund Freud, pioneer of this theory, stated that Ego is rational mind in control. Id is the dark side of

the self- the egocentric,(selfish and self-centered) pleasure seeking part of the ourselves- that Ego must

struggle to keep in control

Ego relies on the internalized set of cultural rules the Superego- for guidance.

Caught between the primitive Id and the overly restrictive Superego, the Ego fights a losing battle when

the Ego loses control to the Id, Hysteria or worse results and when the Superego becomes dominant and

the Id is completely suppressed, people turn into unemotional, depressed social automatons that simply

do what others demand.

Propaganda theorists used Freudian theory to develop propaganda. It would be most effective if it

appeal directly to the Id and stimulate it to overwhelm (overpower) the Ego or through effective

propaganda efforts the cultural rules (Superego) moved the self in the direction of the Id. So people

were seen as individuals incapable of rational self control. People were seen as highly vulnerable to

media manipulation- media stimuli and the Id could trigger action that the Ego and the Superego were

powerless to stop.

Magic Bullet Theories

In the 1920s Media was assumed to operate like magic bullets that penetrated people’s minds and

instantly created associations between strong emotions and specific concepts. By carefully controlling

these magic bullets, propagandists felt that they could condition people associate good emotions, such as

loyalty and reverences with their own country and associate bad emotions, such as fear and loathing

with their enemies.

These theorists thought that rational mind was a mere façade, incapable of resisting powerful messages.

It happened in Germany, Japan, Russia and Italy. In October 1938 H. G Wells War of the Worlds

LASSWELL’S PROPAGANDA THEORY

He combined behaviorism and Freudianism into a particularly pessimistic vision of media and their role.

Propaganda was not so much the result of the substance or appeal of specific messages but rather the

result of the vulnerable state to mind of average people. He argued that economic depression and

escalating political conflict had induced widespread psychosis (hang up, obsession)and this made people

susceptible to even crude forms of propaganda he rejected simplistic magic bullet theory .He believed

that people need to be slowly prepared to accept radically different ideas and actions. Communicators

need a well developed long-term, campaign in which new ideas and image are carefully introduced and

then cultivated symbols must be created and people to associate specific emotions with these symbols. if

these cultivation strategies are successful, they can be referred to as Master symbols – so Master

symbols are associated with strong emotions and possesses the power to stimulate beneficial large-scale

mass action if they are used wisely.

He envisioned a long and quite sophisticated conditioning process. Exposure to one or two extremist

messages would not likely have significant effects. For successful social movements gain power by

propaganda master symbols over a period of months and years using variety of media. He proposed that

that power to control delivery of propaganda through the mass media would be placed in the hands of a

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new elite a scientific technocracy that would be pledged to using its knowledge for good rather than evil

Hence it became the foundation for numerous official efforts to improve and spread democracy at

agencies such as VOA and US information Agency.

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LESSON 11

PARADIGM SHIFT & TWO STEP FLOW OF INFORMATION

In out previous session we discussed the theories that propounded that media has a powerful effect on

people. We discussed the theories which were the reason for the theories that media can be used as

powerful propaganda tool.

Now we will discuss how a radical transformation in media theory took place. And the focus from

powerful effect of media shifted to Limited Effects of Media. And how this became the dominant

paradigm in U.S media research from 1940 till 1960s. We will discuss the work of the pioneer

researchers in this field who were responsible for bringing this shift. We will discuss the work of Paul

Lazarsfeld of Princeton University and then the work of Carl Hovland

But before we proceed lets look at the term Paradigm shift. Thomas Kuhn in 1970 a science historian

argued that the way science progresses is through these radical breaks in theory. For a period of time a

single theoretical perspective or paradigm dominates most research. It provides a useful guide for

research as long as its basic assumptions are accepted. But sometimes small opposition research

communities emerge to develop and investigate alternate theories. Sometimes their work is ignored and

sometime they are able to conclusively demonstrate the validity of their perspective.

Sometimes researchers committed to a dominant paradigm uncover important findings that are

inconsistent with it. And as they explore these findings more and more contradictory data are obtained.

Eventually researcher makes an effort to explain for these inconsistencies and develop a new body of

theory.

Sometimes an important role is played by a scientific iconoclasts-people who rebel against key

assumptions in the dominant paradigm or who are convinced that new research methods should be used

These rebels work in isolation as they develop alternate perspective; the value of their ideas and findings

might not be recognized until decades after the original research was done.

Paradigm Shift In Mass Communication Theory

The people who led the paradigm shift in mass communication theory during the 1940s and 1950s were

primarily methodologists – not theorists. They were convinced that the influence of media can be

assessed by employing objective, empirical methods to measure it.

They were impressed by the accomplishments being made in the physical science. The ability to

understand and control the physical world was being vividly demonstrated e.g. the highly sophisticated

bombs- which could be used for either good or evil- to defend democracy and bolster totalitarianism.

Similarly the scientific methods provided the essential means to control media’s power. They argued

that new research methods such as experiments and surveys made it possible to observe the effects of

media. These observations would permit definitive conclusions to reach and would guide the

construction of more useful theory.

The researchers were trained in the empirical research methods adopted; statistical techniques were

adapted to the study of media effects to bring validity in their approach. Large-scale expensive studies

were conducted.

Two-Step Flow of Information And Influence

Paul Lazarsfeld was a mathematician, but also interested in psychology, sociology and mass

communication. He and his research institute at Colombia University pioneered research in the effects

of radio and introduced. The notion that interpersonal communication was an important mediating factor

in certain mass media effects.

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Lazarsfeld preferred inductive approach to theory construction that is; research should begin with

empirical observation, not with armchair speculation.

After the facts are gathered they are sifted and the most important pieces of information are selected.

This information is used to construct empirical generalizations – assertions about the relationships

between variables.

This research approach is cautious and inherently conservative. It avoids sweeping generalizations that

go beyond empirical observations and demand that theory construction be disciplined by data collection

and analysis. Theory is gradually created by combining generalizations to build what Robert Merton in

1967 referred to as middle-range theory.

Middle range theory comprises of empirical generalizations that are solidly based on empirical facts.

Lazarsfeld studied the election campaign of 1940 – between Roosevelt against Republican Wendell

Willkie. He assembled a large research team in May- the voters were interviewed seven times from May

till November. His findings contradicted mass society theory. He argued that the most important

influence of mass media was to reinforce a vote choice that had already been made. Media simply gave

people more reasons for choosing a candidate to whom they already favored.

He found very little evidence that media converted people. Instead, the converts were often people with

divided loyalties and were pressured by certain group ties. He found out that the few who were early

deciders were also the heaviest users of media. These heavy users might be the same people whose

advice was being sought by other more apathetic voters. These heavy viewers held well developed

political views and used media wisely and critically.

So rather than be converted themselves, they might actually gain information that would help them

advise others so that they would be more resistant to conversion. Thus these heavy users might act as

gate-keepers- screening information and only passing on items that would help other share their views.

They would pass along information to others in the community who looked to them for guidance.

Lazarsfeld chose the term opinion leader to refer to these individuals. He labeled those who turned to

opinion leaders for advice as opinion followers.

These (opinion followers) people were influenced primarily through interpersonal contacts rather than

by what they read in the newspapers and magazines or heard on the radio. This finding led the

establishment of a TWO-STEP FLOW MODEL OF MASS COMMUNICATION, in which effects

were perceived as being modified by interpersonal communication about those media messages.

For the attributes of opinion leaders another research conducted in 1943 on the housewives in Illinois--a

snowball sampling was done- to find out who influenced their thinking on marketing, movies, fashions

and politics- and then influential people were interviewed.

After 10 years Elihu Katz and Lazarsfeld published their work PERSONAL INFLUENCE in 1955.

They disclosed that opinion leaders existed at all levels of society and that the flow of their influence

tended to be horizontal rather than vertical. Opinion leaders influenced people like themselves rather

than those above or below them in the social order.

OPINION LEADERS differed from followers in many ways of their personal attributes:

They were more gregarious

Used media more

Were more socially active

And shared the same social status

Limited Effects Theory

Two popular labels from perspective on media that developed out of Lazarsfeld’s work are:

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Indirect Effects Theory

When media do seem to have an effect, that effect is “filtered” through other parts of the society, for the

example, through friends or social groups

Limited Effects Theory

Limited Effects Theory propounds that media have minimal or limited effects because those effects are

mitigated by a variety of mediating or intervening variables.

The broad generalizations that emerged from the limited effect research work conducted between 1945

and 1960.

Media rarely directly influenced individuals. Most people are sheltered from direct manipulation by

propaganda by their family, friends, co-worker and social groups. People don’t believe everything they

hear or see in the media. They turn to others for advice and critical interpretation. This assumption

contradicts mass society notion that viewed people as isolated and highly vulnerable to direct

manipulation. There is two –step flow of media influence. Media will only be influential if the opinion

leaders who guide others are influenced first.

But since these opinion leaders are sophisticated, critical media users, they are not easily manipulated

by media content. They act as effective barrier to media influence.

By the time most people become adults that have strongly held group commitments such as political

party and religious affiliation that individual media messages are powerless to overcome.

These commitments cause people to reject messages even if other group members are not present to

assist them. Media use tends to be consistent with these commitments. E.g. Republican and democrats;

religious commitments etc

When media effects do occur, they will be modest and isolated. Huge number of people across the land

will not be converted. Rather small pockets of individuals might be influence-usually those who are cut

off from the influence of other people or whose long-term commitments are undermined by social

crises.

Carl Hovland and the Experimental section

The Army’s information and Education Division had a Research Branch headed by a psychologist Carl

Hovland. Primary mission was “to make experimental evaluations of the effectiveness of various

programs of the Information education division”

To find out the essential elements of attitude change he designed experiments employing controlled

variation. To study the claim of mass society theory, he experimented on the soldiers with the

assumptions that since soldiers were torn form their families jobs and social groups. They are isolated

individuals, supposedly highly vulnerable to propaganda.

Hovland found that the military’s propaganda wasn’t as powerful as had been assumed. They

discovered that although the movies were successful in increasing knowledge, they were not as effective

in influencing attitudes and motivations (their primary functions).

But they also found out that although initially films were more effective in imparting factual

information than in changing attitudes about the British as time passed, factual knowledge decreased but

attitudes toward the British actually became more positive. So time was key variable in attitude change.

Possibly propaganda effects were not as instantaneous as mass society theory or behaviorist notions

suggested. However this group found that attitude change was a very complex issue and many variables

had affects on the attitude of an individual e.g. kind of message- one sided or two-sided; socio-economic

background, when people are predisposed to a certain attitude etc

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Since the findings on effects research were enormously varied, two interrelated empirical

generalizations emerged. These generalizations assert that the influence of mass media is rarely direct

because it is almost always mediated by:

individual differences

group membership or relationships

These two factors normally serve as effective barriers to media influence.

Individual Differences Theory

Argued that, because people vary greatly in their psychological make-up and because they have

different perceptions of things, media influence differs from person to person. More specifically, media

messages contain particular stimulus attributes that have differential interaction with personality

characteristics of members of the audience.

Social Categories Theory

This theory assumes that there are broad collective aggregates or social categories in urban-industrial

societies whose behaviour in the face of given set of stimuli is more or less uniform. People with similar

backgrounds e.g. age gender income level, religious affiliation.

Selective Process

One of the central tenet of attitude change theory that was adopted by influential mass communication

theorists, is the idea of COGNTIVE CONSISTENCEY.

As discussed earlier that people seemed to seek out media messages consistent with the values and

beliefs of those around them. This implied that people tried to preserve their existing views by avoiding

messages that challenged them. We must here again mention the theory of COGNITIVE

DISSONANCE.

He explained that the bedrock premise of dissonance theory is that information that is not consistent

with a person’s already-held values and beliefs will create a psychological discomfort (dissonance) that

must be relieved.

People generally work to deep their knowledge of themselves and their knowledge of the world

somewhat consistent.

According to Festinger “If a person knows various things that are not psychologically consistent

with on another he will, I a variety of ways, try to make them more consistent.”

Collectively, these ways have become known as the SELECTIVE PROCESSES. Some psychologists

consider these defense mechanisms that we routinely use to protect ourselves from information that

would threaten us. Here are the three forms of selectivity that were studied by attitude change

researcher.

These notions have since been widely criticized and should be interpreted very carefully.

Selective exposure

Selective retention

selective perception

1. Selective exposure

People’s tendency to expose themselves to or attend to media messages that feel are in accord with their

already-held attitudes and interests and the parallel tendency to avoid that which might be dissonance-

creating.

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2. Selective retention

Is the process by which people tend to remember best and longest information that is consistent with

their preexisting attitudes and interests e.g. unpleasant memories?

3. Selective perception

Is the mental or psychological recasting of a message so that its meaning is in line with a person’s

beliefs and attitudes?

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LESSON 12

MIDDLE RANGE THEORIES

Background

In US the golden age of TV began in the 1950s and continued throughout the 1960s; the highly

successful introduction of colour television during the 1960s confirmed the popularity of the new

medium. The life styles changed – visits with friends and extended family members declined sharply,

decline in book reading, less out door games.

Concern grew that Television is: affecting nation slowly, under mining our mental ability or moral fiber,

making us passive couch potatoes, there was mindless entertainment as against classic .Special attention

was directed at television’s influence on children — is it making them passive, dull or bringing violence

and lead them to juvenile delinquency. In late 1950s Wilbur Schramm, Jack Lyle and Edwin parker

directed on to the most ambitious research projects. During the 1960s and into the 1970s the limited

effects paradigm dominated American mass communication research. In this, the studies conducted by

Schramm’s Stanford group demonstrated the power of the paradigm and its ability to produce findings

that had immediate, practical value.

First research center was established at the university of Illinois and then at Stanford university. These

research centers conducted its research without using a single well articulated theoretical framework. It

relied on a number of empirical generalizations that had emerged from earlier studies. Their goal was to

construct a theory based on systematic empirical observation. They worked inductively identifying

consistencies in their data and then summarizing and interpreting them. Their conclusions were No

informed person can say simply that television is bad or good for children … for some children, under

some condition, some television is harmful for other children under the same condition or for the same

children under other conditions, and it will be beneficial. For most children under most conditions, most

television is probably neither particularly harmful nor particularly beneficial.

So according to the researcher the effect of television could most usefully be viewed as ‘an interaction

between characteristics of television and characteristics of viewers’

They asserted that the arrival of television hadn’t radically altered child-rearing; it had merely

eliminated some old problems (reading comic books) and substituted new ones. The researchers advised

that although television might aggravate some child-rearing problems, these could be handled if parents

provided a little extra care and understanding.

And so other researchers also followed research in the limited effects paradigm they were content to

simply conduct empirical research and address the many research questions that started springing up.

But few thoughtful tried to take stock of what had been done. They wanted to know how all the

individual research findings might be added up or collated

Robert Merton could truly claim to the world of grand sociological theory in the tradition of Emile

Durkheim and the microscopic sociological observation as practice by Lazarsfeld and Hovland and

Schramm

The books he wrote were Social Theory and Social Structure and Social Theoretical Sociology. He gave

them perspective from which to interpret their work and he taught them the necessity of combining

induction with deduction. He provided a conceptual foundation for the new paradigm. He was a strong

advocate for what he called ‘theories of the middle range’

Unlike grand social theories (that is, mass society theory) that attempted to explain all forms of social

action, middle range theories were designed to explain only limited domains or ranges of action that had

been or could be explored during empirical research

Merton described middle-range theories as follows:

Middle-range theories consist of limited sets of assumptions from which specific hypotheses are

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logically derived and confirmed by empirical investigations. These theories do not remain separate but

are consolidated into wider networks of theory.

These theories are sufficiently abstract to deal with differing spheres of social behavior and social

structure, so that they transcend sheer description or empirical generalization.

The middle range orientation involves the specification of ignorance , rather than pretend to knowledge

where it is in fact absent, this orientation expressly recognizes what must still be learned in order to lay

the foundation for still more knowledge.

So Merton argued that all this research work would eventually be brought to construct a comprehensive

theory that would have the power and scope of theories in physical sciences. Moreover, when it was

finally constructed, this theory would be far superior to earlier forms of social theory that were not

empirically grounded.

Thus, middle rang theory provide and ideal rationale for limited effects research. It implied that

eventually all the individual effects studies would add up and a broad perspective on the role of media

could be constructed

But the effort to combine them into broader theories proved more problematic than had been expected

Functional Analysis Approach

Merton used the perspective of functional analysis from carefully examining research in anthropology

and sociology.

That is the society consists of complex sets of interrelated activities, each of which supports the others.

Every form of social activity is assumed to play some part in maintaining the system as a whole.

So functionalist approach was that all practices that contribute to maintaining the society can be said to

be functional rather than good, any practices that are disruptive or harmful are by definition

Dysfunctional rather than evil.

As long as functional practices dominate and dysfunctional practices are kept to some minimum. The

society will flourish- it can be said to be in balance because the functional practices balance out the

dysfunctional ones. But it turned out to be quite complicated. Various forms of media content can be

functional or dysfunctional for society as a whole, for specific individuals, for various subgroups

E.g. news about a corrupt politician alerts the society is functional but dysfunctional for the politician.

So an over all problem with functional analysis is that it rarely permits any definitive conclusion to be

drawn about the overall functions or dysfunctions of media.

In general functional analysis produces conclusion that largely legitimize or rationalize the status quo.

E.g. existing forms of media content and the industries that produce them can be assumed to be

functional. After all if the society is not falling apart then it must be in balance.

Functional analysis ad the limited effects paradigm made a good fit , if media influence was modest,

media couldn’t be too dysfunction

Information Flow Theory

Number of surveys and experiments were conducted to assess the flow of information from media to

mass audiences. The overall objective of this wok was to assess the effectiveness of media in

transmitting information to mass audiences. News flow research focused on determining whether

barriers impeded the flow of information from media to typical audience members.

Some barriers investigated included:

• level of education

• amount of media use for news

• interest in news

• talking about news with others

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• difference between hard and soft news

• hard news typically included news about politics, science world events and community

organizations

• soft news included sports coverage gossip about popular entertainers and human interest

stories about average people

The research confirmed the importance of motivating people to pass on information, but suggested that

even a free gift was insufficient to guarantee the accurate flow of information.

The most important limitation of information flow theory is that it is a simplistic, linear, source-

dominated theory.

Information originates with authoritative or elite source then flows outward to ignorant individuals.

Barriers to the information flow are to be identified and overcome and little effort is typically made to

consider whether the information has any value or utility for average audience members.

Elite Pluralism

Like other examples of limited effects theory, elite pluralism assumes that media have little ability to

directly influence people. Media alone cannot alter politics. Elite pluralism argues that media, in the

name of stability should reinforce political party loyalties and assist the parties to develop and maintain

large voter coalitions. Media shouldn’t be expected to lead public opinion but rather reinforce it. If

change is to occur, it must come from the pluralistic groups and be negotiated and enacted by the

leaders of these groups. This idea was spawned partly as an effort to make sense of the voter research

initiated by Lazarsfeld in the 1948 election. He and his colleagues found inconsistencies between their

empirical observation of typical voters and the assumption that classical democratic theory made

Classical democratic theory- assumed that every one must be well informed and politically active. But

the new perspective based on empirical data showed that average people didn’t care about politics.

Voting decisions were more likely to be based on personal influence than on reasoned consideration of

the various candidates. So they argued that voter apathy weren’t really a problem for the political

system as a whole. They argued that we are better off if our political system changes very slowly over

time as result of gradual conversions. They believed that the important factor was not the quality of

voting decisions but rather their stability

Opposition to Elite Pluralism

First look at the two terms ELITE and PLURALISM.

ELITE implies a political system in which power is ultimately in hands of a small group of influential

persons, a political elite.

PLURALISM refers to cultural, social, and political diversity.

It implies a political system in which many diverse groups are given equal status and representation.

Can there be a political system that is based on both of these principles- a system in which power is

centralized in the hands of the few but in which the rights and status of all minority groups are

recognized and advanced.

So to opponents elite pluralism was a rationalization of the status quo that provided no direction for

future development. Strong opposition to elite pluralism came from the political left headed by C.

Wright Mills. Based on his knowledge of survey research he argued that in American society, political

power was not decentralized across a broad range of pluralistic groups. Instead he believed that power

was centralized in a small group of military-industrial-complex leaders whom he called THE POWER

ELITE.

These elite were not representative of pluralistic groups. Rather it was isolated from them and typically

acted against their interests.

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LESSON 13

KLAPPER’S PHENOMENSITIC THEORY

Elite Pluralism

Like the other examples of limited effects theory, elite pluralism assumes that media have little ability to

directly influence people. Media alone cannot alter politics. Elite pluralism argues that media, in the

name of stability should reinforce political party loyalties and assist the parties to develop and maintain

large voter coalitions. Media shouldn’t be expected to lead public opinion but rather reinforce it.

If change is to occur, it must come from the pluralistic groups and be negotiated and enacted by the

leaders of these groups.

This idea was spawned partly as an effort to make sense of the voter research initiated by Lazarsfeld in

the 1948 election. He and his colleagues found inconsistencies between their empirical observation of

typical voters and the assumption that classical democratic theory made. Classical democratic theory-

assumed that every one must be well informed and politically active.

But the new perspective based on empirical data showed that average people didn’t care about politics.

Voting decisions were more likely to be based on personal influence than on reasoned consideration of

the various candidates. So they argued that voter apathy weren’t really a problem for the political

system as a whole. They argued that we are better off if our political system changes very slowly over

time as result of gradual conversions. They believed that the important factor was not the quality of

voting decisions but rather their stability.

Klapper’s Phenomenistic Theory

In 1960 Joseph Klapper at Colombia University concerned that average people exaggerated the power

of media. He introduced what he called PHENOMENISTIC THEORY.

He argued that media rarely have any direct effects and are relatively powerless when compared with

other social and psychological factors such as social status, group membership, strongly held attitudes,

education and so forth. His theory is often referred to now as reinforcements theory because a key

assertion is that the primary influence of media is to reinforce (not change) existing attitudes and

behaviors.

Instead of disrupting society and creating unexpected social change, media generally serve as agents of

the status quo, giving people more reasons to go on believing and acting as they already do.

He argued that there simply are too many barriers to media influence for drastic changes to occur except

under very unusual circumstances.

Klapper’s Generalizations

• Mass communication ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience

effects, but rather functions among and through a nexus of mediating factors and influences.

• These mediating factors are such that they typically render mass communication a contributory

agent, but not as the sole cause in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions. Regardless of

the condition in question and regardless of whether the effect in question be social or individual

the media are more likely to reinforce than to change.

• On such occasions as mass communication does function in the service of change , one of the

two conditions is likely to exist; Either:

• The mediating factors will be found to be inoperative and the effect of the media will be found

• Or the mediating factors, which normally favor reinforcement, will be found to be impelling

toward change.

• There are certain residual situations in which mass communication seems to produce direct

effects, or directly and of itself to serve certain psychophysical functions.

to be direct;

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• The efficacy of mass communication, either as a contributory agent or as an agent of direct

effect, is affected by various aspects of the media and communications themselves or of the

communication situation, including e.g. aspects of textual organization, the nature of the source

and medium, the existing climate of public opinion and the like.

Criticism

• Downplays reinforcement as an important media effect

• Is too specific to its time and media environment (no television)

• Klapper’s “nexus of mediation variables ” that is church , family and school began to lose their

powerful position in people’s so socialization - and therefore in limiting media effects

• Many critical scholars see this as media’s most negative influence

Assumptions of the limited effects paradigm

• Empirical social research methods can be used to generate theory through an inductive research

process.

• Exploratory, descriptive research is expected to produce empirical generalizations that can later

be combined to form middle-range theories.

• Eventually, middle-range notions can be combined to create broad, powerful social theories that

are firmly grounded in empirical facts.

• The role of mass media in society is limited; media primarily reinforce existing social trends

and only rarely initiate social change.

• The media will cause change only if the many barriers to their influence are broken down by

highly unusual circumstances.

• The empirical mass communication research supported this assumption. In study after study,

little evidence of strong media influence was found.

• Mass media’s role in the lives of individuals is limited, but it can be dysfunctional for some

types of people.

• Media provide a convenient and inexpensive source of entertainment and information.

• But neither use has much long-term or important impact on the daily life of most of people.

• Almost all information is either ignored or quickly forgotten.

• Entertainment mainly provides a temporary distraction from work, allowing people to relax and

enjoy themselves so that they can go back to work refreshed.

• People who are adversely affected by media tend to have severe personality or social adjustment

problems; they would be deeply troubled even if media weren’t available.

• The U.S. political and social system is both stable and equitable

• Although not democratic in the classical sense, the U.S. system id nevertheless a viable and

humane system that respects and nurtures cultural pluralism while preserving social order

• There is no need for radical reform.

• Media play a limited, but nonetheless useful, functional role within the larger society.

• Potentially harmful effects can be detected and prevented should any appear.

Drawbacks of the Limited Effects Paradigm

• Both survey research and experiments have serious methodological limitations that were not

adequately recognized or acknowledged.

• Empirical researchers were anxious to popularize their approach and sometimes made

exaggerated claims for it.

• Naïve people outside the empirical research community made false assumptions about the

power and utility of this type of research.

• When empirical researchers were directly challenged in the late 1960s, they were slow to

acknowledged limitations of their work and reacted defensively.

• The methodological limitations of early empirical social research led to findings that

systematically underestimated the influence of mass media for society and for individuals.

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• Researchers like Lazarsfeld and Hovland were inherently cautious. They didn’t want to infer the

existence of effects that might not be there –spurious effects.

• The researchers developed methods designed to guard against this, but they risked overlooking

or dismissing evidence that could have been interpreted as an argument for significant media

effects.

• In their conclusion, they often failed to emphasize that they might be overlooking many types of

media effects because they had no way of measuring them.

• Early empirical research centered around whether media had immediate, powerful, direct

effects; other types of influence were ignored.

• First, the mass society paradigm, which had been dominant, asserted that such effects existed

and should be easy to observe. This paradigm needed to be evaluated and the early limited

effects research did so.

• Second, the early research couldn’t “see” an effect, it didn’t exist. Only later, did researchers

develop techniques that permitted other types of influence to be empirically assessed.

Contributions of the Limited Effects Paradigm

• The limited effects paradigm effectively replaced mass society theory as the dominant

perspective on media.

• The limited effects paradigm lessened unjustified fears about massive, uncontrollable media

effects.

• This benefited media practitioners.

• Most important, it helped ease pressures for direct government censorship of media and

permitted media practitioners to implement useful forms of self-censorship.

• The paradigm prioritized empirical observation and downgraded highly speculative forms of

theory construction.

• It demonstrated the practicality and utility of empirical research and inspired development of

broad range of innovative methods of data collection as well as new techniques for data

analysis.

• These empirical techniques have proved to be powerful and useful for specific purposes.

• If the paradigm had not become dominant, scientists might not have devoted the time and

resources necessary to develop these techniques.

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LESSON 14

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY

In 1962 Everett Rogers combined the information flow research findings with studies about the flow of

information and personal influence in several fields including anthropology, sociology and rural

agricultural extension work. He developed a diffusion theory. So although it is classified as an important

theory in the field of communication, diffusion of innovations there has known practical application in

many other disciplines liked sociology, rural sociology, economics and medical sociology.

What Is Meant By Diffusion of Innovation

DIFFUSION is: “The process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over

time among the members of social system”

INNOVATION is: “An idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of

adoption

Everett Rogers in his classic work analyzed thousands of diffusion studies in various disciplines over

the years and found similarities. All the studies involved an innovation communication form one person

to another a society of community setting and the element of time

Diffusion of innovation theory states that an innovation (i.e., an idea, new technique, new technology)

diffuses or spreads through out society in a predictable pattern. A few people will adopt an innovation as

soon as they hear of it other people will take longer to try something new and still others will take much

longer. The pattern is that of an S-shaped curve.

When a new media technology or other innovation is adopted rapidly by a great number of people, it is

said to EXPLODE into being.

Social scientists have borrowed a phrase from physicists to describe this adoption phenomenon, the

concept of the critical mass.

In physics, the critical mass has to do with the amount of radioactive agents needed to produce a chain

reaction. In mass communication, the critical mass describes the point when adoption of an innovation

takes off, when the greatest number of people begin to adopt it, and the dramatic upward line on the S-

shaped curve begins its ascent.

Rogers and other diffusion researchers have identified five separate innovation-adoption categories into

which all people in a society will fall.

• Innovators

• Early adopters

• Early majority

• Late majority

• Laggards

1. Innovators

Innovators are described as venturesome and ready to try new things.

Their social relationships tend to be more cosmopolitan than those of other groups.

Such people tend to form cliques and communicate with one another despite geographical distances

2. Early adopters

Early adopters are more localite than cosmopolite.

Due to their integral part in the local society, this adopter category produces the most opinion leaders of

any other category. They are sought for information about innovations, and their advices are valued.

Those in this adopter category have the respect of others in the community because of their success and

willingness to try innovations.

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The respect of others in the community is important to the early adopter, and actions are geared toward

preserving that respect

3. Early majority

This adopter category includes people who do not wish to be the first to adopt new technologies or new

ideas. Instead, the early majority prefers to deliberate, often for some period of time, before its members

make a decision to adopt. These people serve the important function of legitimizing and innovation, or

showing the rest of the community that the innovation is useful and adoption is desirable.

4. Late majority

Members of the late majority are skeptical and cautious about the benefits of adoption. They wait until

most of the community has already tried and adopted the innovation before they act. Sometimes peer

pressure or social pressures serve to motivate the late majority. In other cases, economic necessity

induces them to adopt the innovation.

5. Laggards

Members of this group are the last to adopt. The laggards are tied to the past, to the traditional way of

doing things, and are very reluctant to try anything new.

Many of these people interact with others of the same mind-set. E.g. microwave, mobile phones. Once a

laggard adopts an innovation, the rest of society may have moved so far forward that the ‘innovation’

has become outdated.

Conceptual Roots

In the 1960s Albert Bandura developed a comprehensive learning theory steeped in psychological

principles. The psychological explanations for these events, in terms of social learning theory are:-

Learning about the innovation

Symbolic modeling- (e.g. an innovative behavior shown on television that is subsequently imitated by

viewers.) is the most common source of influence at the beginning of the diffusion process. Early

adopters are usually those who read newspaper or watch television.

If an innovation is hard to understand and difficult to put to practical use, it will not be adopted as

quickly as an innovation that is relatively simple to use.

Some innovations must be spread thorough interpersonal contact and in such situations, physical

proximity affects adoption

Adoption of the Innovation

Whether or not a person USES or ADOPTS the new behavior or innovation depends upon many

different factors. Research has shown that the greater the benefits, the More the incentive to adopt a

particular behavior. E.g. Internet in business.

Adoption of innovations is also affected by SELF-EFFICAY or belief in one’s own abilities. Before a

person decides to try something new that person usually asks the question, Can I do it? Status

incentives are some of the most powerful motivational factors for adoption of something new. E.G latest

hairstyles, new fashions or use of MP3 – once the majority has adopted those items or styles, their

values status symbols is hone and the early adopters must find other novel items or styles.

Adoption also depends upon a person’s individual values and perceptions of self. If new behaviors or

innovations conflict in some way with those values or perceptions, the person is less likely to adopt. E.g.

smoking, drinking.

Developing social networks after Adoption

The third step in successful diffusion of an innovation involves interpersonal communication among

casual acquaintances- the weaker links of the communication network. Research has shown that

cohesive, close groups or clusters of people (immediate family, close friends, clubs, co-workers

religious friends etc) learn of innovations through these weak social ties.

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In the diffusion and adoption process, research has shown that public channels of communication, or

communication by way of mass media, usually serve to spread the awareness of an innovation much

faster than interpersonal channels. Interpersonal communications often prove essential in influencing

people to adopt the idea or innovation that mass media have introduced to them.

Four key steps that effectively summarize the diffusion process are:-

1. Knowledge

2. Persuasion

3. Decision

4. Confirmation

1. Knowledge

A person or members of a community become aware of some new innovation or communication

technology, e.g. software program for home computers.

At this first step in the diffusion process, information is passed through some channel of

communication, usually mass media or telecommunications media, but sometimes by way of

interpersonal contact.

2. Persuasion

Step two of the diffusion process takes place mostly within the mind of the potential adopter. The

individual weighs the advantages that the new technology would bring to him or her personally. Based

upon these evaluations and discussions with others, the individual begins to learn toward either adoption

or rejection of the innovation

3. Decision

With this step, the individual makes the final decision of whether to adopt or reject.

4. Confirmation

Once a decision is made, the individual normally seeks validation.

Whether the decision was to adopt or to reject, the person continues to evaluate the consequences of the

decision.

If the decision was to reject, new information or economic pressures might compel the person to adopt

the innovation

Important Diffusion Studies

Iowa Hybrid corn seed

• To increase yields by 20 percent

• Slow to adopt – reason being price no more seeds for the next season, agriculture

innovations were rare so farmers were not ready

• Diffusion of news

• About agricultural innovations such as fertilizer and pesticides

• New drug (tetracycline) amongst physicians

• Innovations related to health information – family planning

• Advanced knowledge about political and social sciences

• rise of new media technology

SUMMARY

After a number of empirical researches he tried to show that when new technological innovations are

introduced, they will pass through a series of stages before being widely adopted

• First the most people will become aware of them, often through information from mass

media.

• Second the innovations will be adopted by a very small group of innovators or early

adopters

• their opinion leaders learn form the early adopters and try the innovation themselves

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• fourth if opinion leaders find the innovation useful, they encourage their friends – the

opinion followers

Finally after most people have adopted the innovation a:

• Diffusion theory is an excellent example of the power and the limitations of a middle-range

theory. It assigns a very limited role to mass media.

• Media only create awareness of new innovations. Only the early adopters are directly

influenced by media content .Others adopt innovations only after being influenced by other

people.

• He recommended that diffusion efforts be led by change agents, people who could go out

into rural communities and directly influence early adopters and opinion leaders

• Media are used to draw attention to innovations and as a basis for group discussions led by

change agents. Extremely useful in USAID to spread agricultural innovation in the third

world.

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LESSON 15

CHALLENGING THE DOMINANT PARADIGM

In today’s session we will see how the growing violence and the possible contribution of the television

became a concern for the American society. Several different perspectives are discussed, including:

Catharsis

Social learning

Social cognitive theory

First the background and focus on children and violence. Society changed from a primarily rural

agricultural society to a highly urban nation dependent on an industrially base economy. People had

regular incomes. They had more money to spend on the leisure. More consumer goods were competing

in the market place. More and more need to advertise

Women entered into work force. It became more and more acceptable for both parents working outside

home. The traditional community anchors –church and school- began to lose their dominance in the

social development of their children

The teenagers brought sharp increase in delinquency and crime. In the 1960s political changes –

President John F. Kennedy Dr. Martin Luther King assassinated. New unfamiliar music – rock music.

Sociologists discovered the existence of a ‘generation gap’ between conservative, middle class parent

and their increasingly liberal, even radical children.

Media’s role in all these change was hotly debated

Although social researchers and media practitioners typically argued from the limited effects

perspective, a new generation of critics charged that media were harming children and disrupting their

lives.

Particularly Television became the target of increasing criticism and the object of scientific inquiry,

especially where harmful effects were presumed. The debate rose between the ones who strongly

advocated the limited effects notions and those who were skeptical about their findings and accused

them of paid messengers of the media industries, where as the over zealots critics of the television were

accused of oversimplifying complex problems and ignoring alternative causes. The debate over media’s

role in fomenting social instability and instigating violence reached a peak in late 1960s. The federal

government itself tried to locate new answers to this problem by establishing the Surgeon General’s

Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and social behavior in 1969. The collection of scientists’

research concluded after two years and a million dollars of study.

It reported to a U.S. senate subcommittee:

“While the … report is care fully phrased and qualified in language acceptable to social scientists , it is

clear to me that the causal relationship between televised violence and antisocial behavior is sufficient

to warrant appropriate and immediate remedial action. The data on social phenomena such as

television and violence and or aggressive behavior will never be clear enough for all social scientists to

agree on the formulation of a succinct statement of causality, But there comes a time when the data are

sufficient to justify action, that time has come.

President Johnson established a National Commission of the Cause and Prevention of Violence in 1968.

The Commission offered some serious criticisms of media and recommended a variety of changes in

both news reporting and entertainment content.

Commission’s report in it preface stated that:

‘if, as the media claim, no objective correlation exists between media portrayals of violence and violent

behavior-if, in other words, the one has no impact upon the other- then how can the media claim an

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impact in product selection and consumption , as they obviously affect the viewers commercial attitudes

and behaviour? Can they do one and not the other?’

This did not stop the controversy. But ultimately the industry agreed to a self-imposed family viewing

hour in which violent content was ostensibly minimized.

Television Violence Theories

The most important outcome of the violence research was the gradual development of a set of middle-

range theories that summarized findings and offered increasingly useful insight into the media’s role in

the lives of children. The accumulated research clearly demonstrated a correlation between viewing

violence and aggressive behavior- that is, heavy viewers behave more aggressively that light viewers…

Both experimental and longitudinal studies supported the hypothesis that viewing violence is causally

associated with aggression.

CATHARSIS - JUSTIFICATION OF MEDIA VIOLENCE

Catharsis – sometimes called sublimation- the idea that viewing violence is sufficient to purge or at least

satisfy a person’s aggressive drive and, therefore, reduce the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Catharsis suggested that television violence had social utility, providing young people with a harmless

outlet for their pent-up aggression and hostility. However critics called this a ‘phony argument’.

Common sense and your own media consumption offer some evidence of the weakness of the catharsis

hypothesis. When we watch families devouring chocolate cakes, does it purge you of your hunger

drive? If you walk out of a movie like Die Hard did you walk out of the theater a tranquil, placid

person? What scientist learnt that certain presentation so mediated violence and aggression can reduce

the likelihood of subsequent viewer aggression. But catharsis is not the reason.

Rather viewers LEARN THAT violence might not be appropriate in a given situation. Their aggressive

drive might not have been purged, but they might have simply learned that such treatment of another

human is inappropriate. Their inclination towards violence was inhibited by the information in the

media presentation. This leads us to the theory that is generally accepted as most useful in

understanding the influence of media violence on the individual – social cognitive theory.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning – encompasses both imitation and identification to explain how people learn through

observation of other in their environments.

Imitation

Imitation is the direct, mechanical reproduction of behavior. Supposing a viewer watches a violent

movie in which teenagers beat a policeman and the next day he does the same. This demonstrates

imitation. The problem for mass communication theorists, however, is that these obvious examples are

relatively rare. Moreover such gross examples support the argument t that negative effects occur only in

those ‘predisposed’ to aggression.

Identification

Identification on the other hand is:

“A particular form of imitation in which copying a model, generalized beyond specific acts, springs

from wanting to be and trying to be like the model with respect to some broader quality.”

Although there might be few who will imitate what they, there will be many who would like to be

identified with movies’ characters. Imitation from media is clearly more dramatic and observable than is

identification. But identification with media models might be the more lasting and significant of the

media’s effects.

Human learn from observation. The first serious look at learning through observation was offered by

psychologists Neal Miller and John Dollard in 1941. They argued that imitative learning occurred when

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observers were motivated to learn, when the cues or elements of the behaviors to be learned were

present, when observers performed the given behaviors, and when observers were positively reinforced

for imitating those behaviors. In other words, people could imitate behavior that they saw; those

behaviors would be reinforced and therefore learned.

There have been questions however about how much and what kinds of behaviors people learn from the

media. So instead of presenting a means of understanding how people learn from models (including

media models) Miller and Dollard simply described an efficient form of traditional stimulus-response

learning.

They assumed that individuals behaved in certain ways and then shaped their behavior according to the

reinforcement they actually received.

Imitation simply made it easier for an individual to choose a behavior to choose a behavior to reinforce.

The actual reinforcement, they argued, ensured learning.

But this insistence on the operation of reinforcement limited their theory’s application for understanding

how people learn from the mass media.

The theory’s inability to account for people’s apparent skill at learning new responses through

observation rather than actually receiving reinforcement limited its applicability to media impact.

Learning theory

SO traditional learning theory asserts that people learn new behavior when they are presented with

stimuli (something in their environment), make a response to those stimuli, and have those responses

reinforced either positively (rewarded) or negatively (punished) . In this way new behaviors are learned,

or added to people’s behavioral repertoire- the individual’s available behaviors in a given circumstance.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social theorists have advanced various theories about why people behave in the ways that they do.

Some say behavior is based upon a person’s motivations. Other proposes that behavior is a response to

external stimuli and subsequent reinforcements.

Still others point out that people react differently in different situations, and these scholars feel that the

interaction between a person and situation produces a particular behaviour.

One theory in particular reappears time and again in media effects literature is SOCIAL COGNITIVE

THEROY.

According to Albert Bandura,“ social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of

triadic reciprocal causation , in this model of reciprocal determinism, behavior; cognitive, biological

and other personal factors; and environmental events all operate as interaction determinants that

influence each other bidirectionally.

This theory explains human thought and actions as a process of TRIDAIC RECIPROCAL

CAUSATION.

This means that THOUGHT AND BEHAVIOR are determined by three different factors that interact

and influence each other with variable strength, at the same or at different times:

1. Behavior

2. Personal characteristics such a s cognitive and biological qualities (e.g. Iq, sex, or race)

3. Environmental factors or events

Baundra’s social cognitive theory of mass communication the broader social learning theory serve as the

foundations for volumes of research in all areas of media effects study-

• Effects of media violence

• And sexually explicit material

• Pro-social or positive media effects

• Cultivation effects

• Persuasion

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For the student of media effects, an understanding of Bandura’s theory is therefore essential because the

serve as a common denominator among many other media effects theories and hypotheses.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of these uniquely human characteristics, known as

the

1. Symbolizing capacity

2. Self-regulatory capacity

3. Self-reflective capacity

4. Vicarious capacities (Bandura, 1994)

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LESSON 16

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEROY

According to Albert Bandura, “ social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of

triadic reciprocal causation , in this model of reciprocal determinism, behavior; cognitive, biological

and other personal factors; and environmental events all operate as interaction determinants that

influence each other bidirectionally.”

This theory explains human thought and actions as a process of TRIDAIC RECIPROCAL

CAUSATION.

This means that THOUGHT AND BEHAVIOR are determined by three different factors that interact

and influence each other with variable strength, at the same or at different times:

• Behavior

• Personal characteristics such a s cognitive and biological qualities (e.g. IQ, sex, or race)

• Environmental factors or events.

Baundra’s social cognitive theory of mass communication the broader social learning theory serve as the

foundations for volumes of research in all areas of media effects study-

• Effects of media violence

• And sexually explicit material

• Pro-social or positive media effects

• Cultivation effects

• Persuasion

For the student of media effects, an understanding of Bandura’s theory is therefore essential because the

serve as a common denominator among many other media effects theories and hypotheses.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of these uniquely human characteristics, known as

the

• Symbolizing capacity

• Self-regulatory capacity

• Self-reflective capacity

• Vicarious capacities (Bandura, 1994)

1. Symbolizing Capacity

Human communication is based upon a system of shared meanings known as language that is

constructed of various symbols.

These symbols occur at more than on conceptual level – letters of the alphabet are symbols used to

construct words, e.g. and words serve as symbols to represent specific objects, thoughts, or ideas. The

capacity to understand and use these symbols allows people to store and process, and transform

observed experiences into cognitive models that guide them in future actions and decisions.

2. Self Regulatory Capacity

The self-regulatory capacity includes the concepts of motivation and evaluation.

People have the ability to motivate themselves to achieve certain goals. To motivate themselves to

achieve certain goals, they tend to evaluate their own behavior and respond accordingly. In this way,

behavior is self-directed and self regulated.

3. Self Reflective Capacity

This capacity involves the process of thought verification. It is the ability of a person to perform a self-

check to make sure his or her thinking, is correct. Bandura identified four different self-reflective

“modes” used in thought verification:

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i. Enactive

ii. Vicarious

iii. Persuasive

iv. Logical modes

i. Enactive Mode

In the enactive mode a person assesses the agreement between thoughts and the results of actions.

Person’s actions corroborate his/her thought and provide verifications.

ii. Vicarious Mode

In vicarious mode observation of another’s experiences and the outcomes of those experiences serve to

confirm or refute the veracity of thoughts.

Example—suppose a woman thinks women are inferior and the TV comes in she watches Xena and

then her thoughts about female inferiority could be shocked into some kind of reassessment.

iii. Persuasive Mode

An effective advertisement serves as the best demonstration of the persuasive mode, especially a

commercial in which a person on the street is convinced to change brands. Despite the added cost, the

viewer might be persuaded by the decision of the person to purchase the product advertised.

iv. Logical Mode

It involves verification by which previously acquired rules of inference. Perhaps the person who was

convinced to try the new product liked it so much that he decided to try the higher-priced brands of

other types of products.

4. Vicarious Capacity

This is the ability to learn without direct experience, emphasizes the potential social impact of mass

media- for better or worse. As an example, of positive social impact the vicarious capacity allows a

person to learn all sorts of beneficial things by simply reading or watching a television program

presenting these pro-social behaviors. On the other hand on the negative side, people may witness and

learn certain antisocial behaviors to which they might not otherwise have been exposed.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING AND MODELING

Social learning and social cognitive theories place much emphasis on the concept of

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING. A person observes other people’s action and the consequences of

those actions, and learns from what has been observed. The learned behavior can then be reenacted by

the observer.

MODELLING

The phenomenon of behavior reenactment is called MODELLING. It is the acquisition of behaviors

through observation. It includes four component processes:

i. Attention

ii. Retention

iii. Motor reproduction

iv. Motivation

1. Attention

A person must pay attention to any behavior and perceive it accurately in order to model it successfully.

Example—the beginner cricketer watches the actions, listen to the instructions.

2. Retention

Modeled behavior must be remembered or retained in order to be used again; the permanent memory

stores the information by means of symbolic representations that subsequently can be converted into

actions. Example the beginner cricketer than remembers the instructions with the demonstrations

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3. Motor reproduction

At first motor reproduction may be difficult and even faulty as the beginner has to ‘think through’ all the

various steps involved in making a successful swing.

The natural ability or the superior motor memory of the beginner largely determines the length of time

required for mastery of the modeled action.

4. Motivation

For various reasons, people are not always motivated to model the behaviors they learn. Motivation

becomes a major factor in the decision to use modeled behavior.

Three types of situations provide the incentives that motivate a person to model learned behavior.

Positive outcomes through direct performance of the behavior,

Observation of another’s behavior and the subsequent outcome, and evaluation based upon personal

values or standards of behavior e.g. in his case , the child is motivated to avoid modeling the violent

behavior because he has witnessed a horrible outcome. (power rangers, kicking a boy) his internalized

standard of conduct has become more strict.

Abstract Modeling

New life situations require people to apply the rules of behavior learned in the past to the new and

different situations. Abstract modeling takes learning to a higher level than mere mimicry of observed

behavior and therefore offers many practical advantages.

Rules of behavior learned in the past serve as a guide for new life situations. These rules often provide

an abstract framework for decisions making in new situations.

Whenever a person observe behavior or receives information that conflicts with established patterns of

behavior or principles of conduct, the inner conflict causes a reexamination of motivations to perform

the established behavior. In other words, existing standards of behavior are not perfect or constant for

each new situation. A person is merely guided by the outcomes of his or her own past experiences or the

observed experiences of other people.

Abstract modeling takes learning to a new level than mere mimicry of observed behavior, new situations

generate new behaviors based upon the rules of behavior learned previously, these behaviors are

themselves learned and stored in memory for the future adaptation in other situations.

The use of abstract modeling offers many practical advantages. One acquires personal standards for

judging one’s won motivations and behavior and those of others.

Abstract modeling also boosts critical thinking and communication skills.

(E.g. homemade cards for mother and it is improvised for the whole family

Effects of Modeling

Sometimes a person observes behavior or receives information that conflicts in some way with that

person’s established pattern of behavior. Two major effects are associated with such situation-

inhibitory and disinhibitory effects.

Inhibitory Effects

Most studies on inhibitory and disinhibitory effect have examined transgressive, aggressive or sexual

behavior.

Inhibitory effects occur whenever new information or the observation of new behavior inhibits or

restrain a person from acting in a previously learned way.

Inhibitory effects occur whenever a person refrains from reprehensible conduct for fear of the

consequences.

So INHIBITORY EFFFECTS

Seeing a model punished from a behavior is sufficient to reduce the likelihood that the observer will

make that behavior.

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Disinhibitory effect disinhibits or lifts previously learned internal restraints on certain behaviors .E.g. a

smoker might decide to change his behavior if he sees his favorite uncle suffer miserably and die due to

excessive smoking. - Inhibitory effect.

When a girl decides to smoke coming from a family which considers smoking a taboo.

Disinhibitory effect

Seeing a model rewarded for a prohibited or threatening behavior increase the likelihood that the

observer will make that behavior. Disinhibitory effects lift previously learned internal restraints on

certain behaviors.

Modeling from mass media

Modeling from mass media, then is an efficient way to learn wide range of behavior and solution to

problems that we otherwise learn slowly or not at all, or pay too high a price to learn in the actual

environment. And according to Bandura things people experience in their environments e.g. mass media

can affect people’s behaviors and that affect is influenced by various personal factors specific to those

people.

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LESSON 17

MODELING FROM MASS MEDIA

Modeling from mass media, then is an efficient way to learn wide range of behavior and solution to

problems that we otherwise learn slowly or not at all, or pay too high a price to learn in the actual

environment. And according to Bandura things people experience in their environments e.g. mass media

can affect people’s behaviors and that affect is influenced by various personal factors specific to those

people.

Learning from Media Content and Modeling

Whenever a person sees a character on the screen expressing some strong emotion or performing some

powerful action, the viewer is affected or aroused.

The viewer remembers similar experiences and emotions, and these thoughts and images serve as cues

that trigger self-arousal.

E.g. ET, Jaws, horror movies—fear reaction.

Such experiences of arousal are not always fleeting in nature; several studies have shown that audience

members sometimes develop lasting emotional reactions, attitudes and behaviors after viewing

emotional content that arouses them.

Social construction of reality and cultivation

Some studies show that realities depicted on television programs do not always reflect the true state of

affairs in the real world. Some scholars believe that heavy viewing of television tends to shape or

cultivate viewers’ perceptions and beliefs so that they are more in line with the world portrayed on

television than with that of the real world. Media scholars call this media effects phenomenon the social

construction of reality. E.g. chances of being on the plane and it will crash; chances of being a victim of

a violent crime; stereotypical portrayals of men and women especially in terms of their profession.

Effects of viewing televised or film violence

Through the years, most media effects studies have examined the negative effects that result from the

vicarious capacity, such as the learning of aggressive behavior by viewing televised or filmed violence.

When carried to it s worst extreme, the modeling of such behavior has been linked to violent and brutal

“copycat’ crimes such as rape, murder.

Learning good things from media

In recent years, a growing body of research that examines children’s television programming has

yielded promising findings. These studies have shown that many children’s television shows have pro-

social or positive effects. Children improve literacy, science, and mathematics skills and learn positive

social behavior, enhance their imaginative powers and develop problem –solving.

Longitudinal studies have revealed that positive effects, in terms of academic achievement and reading

skills especially from viewing Sesame Street as preschool.

Positive benefits of educational programming for children are enhanced whenever parents or care givers

view programs with the children and reinforce the messages.

Social prompting or persuasion

Advertising campaigns and other efforts of persuasion serve as excellent examples of social prompting,

another example of modeled behavior. Social prompting does not involve learning new behavior, and

therefore it differs from observational learning and disinhibition. Social prompting implies that a person

is offered an inducement (an incentive) to act in a particular way that has already been learned. E.g.

most people are not inclined to try a new product unless of course , the new product is shown to offer

great benefits of inducements- toothpaste

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Diffusion by way of symbolic modeling

One important area of media effects research involves the study of diffusion or spread of an innovation

a new technology, tool behavior, farming techniques- throughout the society or a large group of people.

Diffusion of innovations research examines the different strengths of media and interpersonal influences

in adoption of new behavior.

Social changes have occurred due to the influences of television on elite societies of viewers who model

the various behaviors, styles and ideas that they see and learn

Recent research

Social cognitive theory serves as the theoretical basis for many types of media effects research- from

media violence studies and fright reactions to media content to effects from sexually explicit content

and effects from persuasive media messages.

In recent years, social cognitive theory of mass communication has proven especially useful as the

theoretical underpinning for communication campaigns and their design, for health communications,

election campaigns etc

Summary

Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory serves as the basis for many other theories of media effects.

It provides a framework to analyze human cognitions that produce certain behaviors and describe

mental processes at work, whenever a person learns. Social cognitive theory is an offshoot of Bandura’s

more comprehensive social learning theory, which explains behavior by examining the triadic reciprocal

causation process, or the interaction among cognitive, behavioral and environmental factors.

Cognitive traits

Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of several distinct cognitive traits that set human

beings apart. These include the symbolizing, self regulatory, self-reflective, and vicarious.

Social cognitive theory helps explain cultivation effects, priming effects and pro-social effects in terms

of cognition, observational learning and modeling.

The basis for many persuasion effects or social prompting from mass media can be found in social

cognitive theory, which recognizes that motivations or influences to model new behavior or adopt new

ideas are dynamic and usually a combination of outside factors and personal cognitions and

characteristics.

Diffusion of innovations, another important arm of media effects research, also finds a conceptual basis

in social cognitive theory. Diffusion of an innovation throughout a society or a large group o f people is

explained in terms of symbolic modeling, persuasion or social prompting and motivation

PRIMING EFFECTS

Often questions like these bother the researchers about violent content in the media

Does media violence cause viewers to make associations with angry or critical thoughts stored in their

own memories? Does the viewing of mediated violence and the mental associations it arouses make

viewers more likely to commit acts of violence themselves? These questions are related to the

psychological processes present whenever media effects do indeed occur.

Priming occurs when exposure to mediated communication activates related thoughts that have been

stored in the mind of an audience member. Media message content triggers concepts, thoughts, learning,

or knowledge acquired in the past that are related to the message content. In this way, message content

is connected, associated, or reinforced by related thoughts and concepts that it brings to mind. For a

certain period after viewing such content, a person is more likely to have thoughts or memories become

permanently associated with the message content, or stimulus.

E.g. if one views a rail accident or air accident the viewer might recall an accident he is part of. his

interest in he news story and his reaction to it may well be affected by his existing knowledge and

previous experiences.

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In other words his memories primed him to react in a particular way to the story. The priming activation

may also influence a person’s behavior, causing him or her to act or react in some way, sometimes with

undesirable consequences. The most sensational example of undesirable priming, in this case operating

with social learning theory may be that of COPYCAT crimes- especially murder or other violent crimes

that occurred after the person was PRIMED by movie or program

Instance of copycat crimes are grave extremes of priming. Such cases represent a very small percentage

of the population experience priming affects so completely that they actually MODEL OR IMITATE

the viewed behavior. Priming effects from the viewing of media violence are normally much more

subtle but even that level they represent cause for concern.

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LESSON 18

PRIMING EFFECT

Priming occurs when exposure to mediated communication activates related thoughts that have been

stored in the mind of an audience member. Media message content triggers concepts, thoughts, learning,

or knowledge acquired in the past that are related to the message content. In this way, message content

is connected, associated, or reinforced by related thoughts and concepts that it brings to mind. For a

certain period after viewing such content, a person is more likely to have thoughts or memories become

permanently associated with the message content, or stimulus.

E.g. if one views a rail accident or air accident the viewer might recall an accident he is part of. His

interest in the news story and his reaction to it may well be affected by his existing knowledge and